UC-NRLF 


HARPER'S 

FAMILY    LIBRARY. 
N°.  LXXI. 


TEES 

PRINCIPLES   OF  PHYSIOLOGY 

APPLIBD  TO   TBS 

PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH, 


PIT 


MENTAL  EDUCATION. 


K 


<§*   BROT 


GIF1 


* 


GIFT   OF 
Ida  H»  Hyde 


!  ' 

PRINCIPLES   OF  PHYSIOLOG' 


^ 

e 

PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH, 


AND    TO    THE    IMPROVEMENT    OP 


PHYSICAL  AND  MENTAL  EDUCATION. 


BY  ANDREW  COMBE,  M.D. 
n 

VELLOW  OF  THE  ROYAL  COLLKQB  OF  PHYCICIANS  OF  BD1NBUROK. 


NEW-YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS-82  CLIFF-STREET. 
1836. 


4  PJ 


- 


PREFACE. 


THE  object  of  the  present  volume  is  to  lay  be- 
fore the  public  a  plain  and  intelligible  description 
of  the  structure  and  uses  of  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant organs  of  the  human  body,  and  to  show  how 
information  of  this  kind  may  be  usefully  applied 
both  to  the  preservation  of  health  and  to  the  im- 
provement of  physical  and  mental  education.  In 
selecting  the  functions  to  be  treated  of,  I  have  pre- 
ferred to  examine  those  which  are  at  once  most 
influential  in  their  operation  on  the  general  sys- 
tem, and  at  the  same  time  least  familiarly  known. 
Some,  accordingly,  whose  sphere  of  action  is  com- 
paratively subordinate,  I  have  not  even  named  ;  and 
to  others  of  essential  consequence  in  the  animal 
economy,  such  as  that  of  digestion,  I  have  merely 
alluded.  To  include  the  first  would  have  added 
to  the  difficulties  of  the  reader,  by  the  multiplicity 
of  unimportant  details ;  and  to  treat  of  the  latter 
would  have  been,  in  a  great  measure,  a  work  of  su- 
pererogation, as  treatises  on  the  digestive  organs 
are  already  in  extensive  circulation. 

In  offering  practical  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the 
reader,  it  has  been  my  constant  endeavour  to  ex- 
hibit the  relation  subsisting  between  them  and  the 


ii  PREFACE. 

particular  laws  of  the  organization,  according  to 
which  their  influence  is  exerted,  that  the  recom- 
mendation given  may  rest,  as  far  as  possible,  on 
the  foundation  of  nature,  and  not  on  the  doubtful 
authority  of  any  individual.  Many  of  the  valuable 
treatises  which  have  already  appeared  on  the  sub- 
jects of  health  and  of  education  seem  to  me  to 
have  failed  in  making  an  adequate  impression  on 
the  public  mind,  chiefly  from  this  basis  not  having 
been  brought  sufficiently  into  view ;  and  thus  not 
only  have  the  evils  arising  from  defective  education 
been  unjustly  and  invidiously  charged  against  edu- 
cation itself,  but  the  most  opposite  methods  have 
been  advocated  and  practised,  with  equal  earnest- 
ness and  plausibility,  where  a  direct  reference  to 
the  laws  of  the  organization  would  at  once  have 
dissipated  doubt  and  placed  truth  in  its  clearest 
light. 

It  is  not  uninstructive  to  remark,  that,  in  the  case 
of  the  lower  animals,  the  necessity  of  modifying  the 
method  of  cultivation  according  to  the  peculiarities 
of  constitution  which  they  present,  has  been  long 
perceived  and  consistently  acted  on,  and  with  such 
success  as  to  afford  us  good  reason  for  applying  the 
same  rule  to  our  own  species,  and  for  regarding 
every  mode  of  education  as  erroneous  and  ineffi- 
cient which  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  higher  na- 
ture of  man.  The  extent,  indeed,  to  which,  by  fol- 
lowing this  plan,  we  can  carry  our  influence  over 
the  lower  animals,  and  secure  the  development  and 
efficiency  of  almost  every  organ,  has  often  been  the 
theme  of  admiration  and  surprise  :  and  there  can 


PREFACE.  HI 

scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  were  the  same  principle 
followed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  physical,  moral, 
and  intellectual  powers  of  man,  and  were  no  rule 
received  which  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  his  constitution,  a  much  higher  degree  of  success 
would  reward  our  exertions  than  we  have  ever  yet 
experienced  or  anticipated. 

The  little  regard  which  has  hitherto  been  paid  to 
the  laws  of  the  human  constitution,  as  the  true  basis 
on  which  our  attempts  to  improve  the  condition  of 
man  ought  to  rest,  will  be  obvious  from  the  fact, 
that,  notwithstanding  the  direct  uses  to  which  a 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  which  regulate  the 
healthy  action  of  the  bodily  organs  may  be  applied, 
in  the  prevention,  detection,  and  treatment  of  dis- 
ease, there  is  scarcely  a  medical  school  in  this 
country  in  which  any  special  provision  is  made  for 
teaching  it ;  the  pupil  being  left  to  elaborate  it  for 
himself  from  amid  information  communicated  to 
him  for  other  purposes.  In  some  of  the  foreign 
universities,  chairs  have  been  instituted  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  and,  in  France,  a  journal  of  Hygiene  has  ex- 
isted for  a  short  time.  But,  in  this  country,  with 
the  exception  of  Sir  John  Sinclair's  elaborate  Code 
of  Health,  and  one  or  two  other  publications  of  a 
late  date,  the  subject  has  never  been  treated  wi|h 
any  thing  like  the  regard  which  it  assuredly  de*- 
serves.  In  one  point  of  view,  indeed,  the  omission 
is  not  so  extraordinary  as  it  may  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear. The  prominent  aim  of  medicine  being  to 
discriminate  and  to  cure  disease,  both  the  teacher 
and  the  student  naturally  fix  upon  that  as  their  cbiei* 


IV  PREFACE. 

object ;  and  are  consequently  apt  to  overlook  the 
indirect  but  substantial  aid  which  an  acquaintance 
with  the  laws  of  health  is  calculated  to  afford  in  re- 
storing the  sick,  as  well  as  in  preserving  the  healthy 
from  disease. 

It  is  true,  that  almost  every  medical  man,  sooner 
or  later,  works  out  this  knowledge  for  himself ;  but, 
in  general,  he  attains  it  later  than  he  ought  to  do, 
and  seldom  so  completely  as  he  would  have  done 
had  it  been  made  a  part  of  his  elementary  education, 
to  which  he  saw  others  attach  importance.  In  my 
own  instance,  it  was  only  when  entering  upon  prac- 
tice that  I  had  first  occasion  to  feel  and  to  observe 
the  evils  arising  from  the  ignorance  which  prevails 
in  society  in  regard  to  it.  Impressed  afterward 
more  deeply  than  ever  with  the  interest  and  utility  of 
the  study,  I  contributed  two  or  three  articles  on  the 
subject  to  one  of  our  periodical  journals,  and  re- 
solved to  make  them  the  basis,  at  some  future  time, 
of  a  more  detailed  and  connected  exposition.  This 
I  have  now  attempted  ;  and,  if  the  result  prove  use- 
ful, in  any  degree,  to  the  general  reader  or  profes- 
sional student,  my  object  will  be  attained.  The 
volume  being  of  a  purely  elementary  character,  and 
admitted  truths  of  a  useful  kind  being,  in  every  in- 
stance, preferred  to  novelty  or  ingenious  specula- 
tion, the  experienced  practitioner  will  meet  with  lit- 
tle to  interest  him  in  the  perusal ;  but  for  him  it  was 
never  intended. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  the  minds  of  many,  when 
a  new  subject  is  presented  to  them,  to  run  away 
with  a  part  of  a  proposition*  or  with  an  individual 


PREFACE.  ,        T 

illustration,  and  to  condemn  the  principle  to  which  it 
applies  as  unsound,  because  they  happen  to  know 
facts  which  are  at  variance  with  the  particular  ex- 
ample brought  forward.  In  this  way,  there  is  per- 
haps no  one  rule  which  I  have  advanced  to  which 
some  individual  case  may  not  be  plausibly  opposed. 
But  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  principle 
or  rule  is  thereby  disproved.  An  example  may  be 
badly  chosen,  and  yet  the  truth  it  is  meant  to  con- 
vey may  be  as  much  a  truth  as  before.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  at  once  condemning  a  proposition  on 
account  of  a  single  apparent  exception,  it  will  be 
better  to  extend  the  inquiry,  and  discover  whether 
any  peculiarity  of  situation  or  constitution  has  inter- 
fered to  modify  the  result,  and  to  condemn  only 
when  evidence  of  inaccuracy  is  obtained.  Thus, 
because  some  drunkards  have  enjoyed  good  health, 
and  lived  to  an  unusually  old  age,  we  are  by  no 
means  entitled  to  infer  that  drinking  was  the  cause 
of  the  good  health,  and  that  if  we  would  all  drink  as 
freely,  we  should  all  live  as  long.  An  example  of 
this  kind,  far  from  disproving  the  principle  that  ar- 
dent spirits  are  prejudicial  to  the  human  frame,  only 
establishes  the  fact  that  individuals  exist  who,  from 
some  idiosyncrasy,  are  better  able  than  others  to  re- 
sist their  bad  effects  ;  and,  in  like  manner,  when  I 
state,  as  a  general  proposition,  that  severe  muscular 
exertion  is  hurtful  during  rapid  growth,  I  do  not 
consider  it  as  any  argument  against  the  fact  to  say, 
that  A.  B.  underwent  great  exertion  when  growing 
without  being  injured  by  it.  The  general  principle 
obviously  remains  unaffected  by  any  such  instances. 
A2 


VI  PREFACE. 

Various  repetitions  occur  in  the  course  of  the 
work,  which  to  some  may  seem  unnecessary,  and 
for  which  I  ought  to  solicit  the  indulgence  of  the 
reader.  These  have  arisen  chiefly  from  the  inti- 
mate manner  in  which  the  different  functions  are 
connected  with  each  other,  rendering  it  impossible 
to  explain  one  without  constantly  referring  to  the 
rest.  Occasionally,  also,  the  novelty  and  import- 
ance of  the  subject  have  led  me  to  risk  repetition, 
in  order  to  ensure  attention ,  but  I  trust  that  these 
faults,  if  felt  as  such,  will  be  forgiven. 

Those  who  desire  to  obtain  further  information 
of  a  popular  nature  in  regard  to  the  structure  of 
man,  will  find  an  excellent  treatise  on  Animal 
Physiology,  in  four  of  the  earlier  numbers  of  the 
Library  of  Useful  Knowledge.  It  is  understood 
to  be  from  the  pen  of  an  able  physician  in  London, 
with  whose  sentiments  on  the  subject  now  before  us, 
as  expressed  in  the  following  extract  from  his  con- 
cluding page,  I  need  hardly  say  I  entirely  concur  : — > 

"  The  obvious  and  peculiar  advantages  of  this 
kind  of  knowledge  are,  that  it  would  enable  its 
possessor  to  take  a  more  rational  care  of  his  health  ; 
to  perceive  why  certain  circumstances  are  bene- 
ficial or  injurious  ;  to  understand,  in  some  degree, 
the  nature  of  disease,  and  the  operation  as  well  of 
the  agents  which  produce  it  as  of  those  which  coun- 
teract it ;  to  observe  the  first  beginnings  of  deranged 
function  in  his  own  person  ;  to  give  to  his  physician 
a  more  intelligible  account  of  his  train  of  morbid 
sensations  as  they  arise ;  and,  above  all,  tc  co- 
operate with  him  in  removing  the  morbid  state  on 


PREFACE.  Vri 

which  they  depend,  instead  of  defeating,  as  is  now 
through  gross  ignorance  constantly  done,  the  best 
concerted  plans  for  the  renovation  of  health.  It 
would  likewise  lay  the  foundation  for  the  attainment 
of  a  more  just,  accurate,  and  practical  knowledge 
of  our  intellectual  and  moral  nature.  There  is  a 
physiology  of  the  mind  as  well  as  of  the  body  ;  both 
are  so  intimately  united,  that  neither  can  be  well 
understood  without  the  study  of  the  other  ;  and  the 
physiology  of  man  comprehends  both.  Were  even 
what  is  already  known  of  this  science,  and  what 
might  be  easily  communicated,  made  a  part  of  gen- 
eral education,  how  many  evils  would  be  avoided, 
how  much  light  would  be  let  in  upon  the  under- 
standing, and  how  many  aids  would  be  afforded  to 
the  acquisition  of  a  sound  body  and  a  vigorous 
mind ; — pre-requisites  more  important  than  are  com- 
monly supposed  to  the  attainment  of  wisdom  and  the 
practice  of  virtue." 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Physiology,  vegetable,  comparative,  *and  human — Animate  and 
inanimate  Bodies  —  Objects  of  Physiology — Usefulness  of 
Physiological  Knowledge — Illustrations — Evils  of  Ignorance 
— Error  in  separating  Anatomy  and  Physiology  from  their 
practical  Applications — Object  of  the  present  Publication  13 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Skin— Composed  of  three  Layers— The  Cuticle— Its  Struc- 
ture and  Uses— The  mucous  Coat— The  Seat  of  Colour— The 
true  Skin— Its  Structure— The  Seat  of  Perspiration— Its  Na- 
ture— Consequences  of  suppressed  Perspiration — Sympathy 
between  the  Skin  and  other  Organs— The  Skin  a  Regulator  of 
Animal  Heat— The  Seat  of  Absorption— Touch  and  Sensation 
—Connexion  between  the  Skin  and  Nervous  System  -  30 

CHAPTER  III. 

Mortality  in  Infancy  from  Cold— Animal  Heat  lowest  at  that 
Age — TOO  little  and  too  much  Clothing  equally  bad — Rules 
for  Dress — Advantages  of  Flannel,  exemplified  in  H.  M.  S. 
Valorous — Ventilation  of  Beds  and  Clothing — Influence  of 
Light — Importance  of  Ablution  and  Bathing — Cold,  Tepid, 
and  Warm  Bath — Sponging  with  diluted  Vinegar — Friction 
of  the  Skin — Vapour-bath  and  Warm  Bath  useful  in  prevent- 
ing and  curing  Nervous  Diseases  and  Liability  to  Cold — Sail- 
ing and  Riding  useful  by  acting  on  the  Skin 62 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Muscles — Their  Structure,  Attachments,  and  Conditions  of  Ac 
tion — Necessity  of  Arterial  Blood  and  of  Nervous  Influence — 
Illustrations — Muscles  act  by  alternate  Contraction  end  Re- 
laxation— Fatigue  consequent  on  continuing  the  same  Attitude 
explained — Injuries  of  Spine  from  Neglect  of  this  Law,  and 
from  sedentary  Occupations  in  School — The  Mind  ought  to  be 


10  CONTENTS. 

engaged  in  Exercise  as  well  as  the  Body — Superiority  of 
cheerful  Play  and  amusing  Games — A  dull  Walk  the  least 
useful  Exercise — Influence  of  Mental  Stimulus  illustrated  by 
Examples — Exercise  to  be  proportioned  to  Strength — Laws 
of  Exercise .....88 

CHAPTER  V. 

Effects  of  Muscular  Exercise  on  the  principal  Functions  of  the 
Body  explained — Shampooing  a  Substitute  for  Exercise — 
Evils  of  deficient  Exercise — Best  Time  for  taking  Exercise — 
Always  to  be  taken  in  the  open  Air — Different  Kinds — 
Walking — Riding — Dancing  —  Gymnastics— Fencing — Shut- 
tlecock— Reading  aloud — Case  illustrative  of  the  Principles 
of  Exercise — Involuntary  Muscles 121 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Bones  essential  to  Motion,  and  to  the  Security  of  the  Vital 
Organs — The  Skeleton — Bones  are  composed  of  Animal  and 
of  Earthy  Matter— The  Animal  Part  the  Seat  of  their  Vitality 
— The  Proportions  between  these  vary  at  different  Periods  of 
Life — Vessels,  Nerves,  Life,  Growth,  and  Decay  of  Bones — 
Advantages  of  their  Vitality  and  Insensibility — Their  Adapta- 
tion to  contained  Parts — Conditions  of  Health — Necessity  of 
Exercise- 140 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Respiration — Arteria?  and  Venous  Blood — Nature  of  Respiration 
—Structure  of  the  Lungs — Conditions  required  for  Healthy 
Respiration — Sound  original  Constitution — Influence  of  He 
reditary  Predisposition — Of  wholesome  Food,  and  good  Diges- 
tion— Of  the  free  expansion  of  the  Lungs — Of  exercise  of  the 
Muscles  and  Voice — Of  Cheerfulness  and  Depression  of  Mind 
— Of  Pure  Air  and  Ventilation — Examples  of  the  bad  effects  of 
Vitiated  Air — Respiration  the  source  of  Animal  Heat — Causes 
of  deficient  Generation  of  Heat — Removal  of  such  Causes- 
Direct  and  Indirect  Exercise  of  the  Lungs — Beneficial  Effects 
of,  and  Rules  for,  Exercise — Precautions  to  be  observed  in 
Diseases  of  the  Lungs,  and  in  Persons  predisposed  to  Con- 
sumption  164 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Nervous  System — Structure  of  the  Brain— Its  Functions — 
Connexion  between  the  Mind  and  Brain — Conditions  of 
Health  in  the  Brain— Hereditary  Predisposition— Influence 


CONTENTS.  1 1 

of  the  Blood  on  the  Brain—Influence  of  Exercise  on  the 
Brain — Effects  of  insufficient  Exercise — Effects  of  excessive 
Exercise  at  different  Ages — Case  of  Sir  H.  Davy — Rules  for 
the  proper  Exercise  of  the  Brain — Best  Time  for  Mental 
Exertion — Regularity  essential— Repetition — Every  Mental 
Power  to  be  exercised  directly  on  its  own  Objects — Illustra- 
tions— Influence  of  the  Nervous  System  on  the  general 
Health— Examples 206 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Causes  of  Bad  Health — Not  always  the  Result  of  moral  or  im- 
moral Conduct — Nor  of  Accident — But  of  the  Infringement  of 
the  Laws  of  Organization — Proofs  from  past  History — Dimin- 
ished Mortality  from  Increase  of  Knowledge,  and  better  fulfil- 
ment of  the  Conditions  of  Health — The  Expeditions  of  Anson 
and  Cook  contrasted— Gratifying  Results  of  the  Sanatory  Ar- 
rangements of  Ross,  Parry,  and  Franklin— Pulmonary  Dis- 
eases in  the  Channel  Fleet,  from  Ignorance  of  Physiology — 
Rates  of  Mortality  in  different  Ages  and  Countries — Causes 
of  late  Improvements — Condition  of  Wealthier  and  Poorer 
Classes  compared — Good  done  by  the  Apprehension  of  Chol- 
era—Influence of  Habit — Neglect  of  Organic  Laws  in  Re- 
cruiting Service — Examples — Conclusion  ...  -  264 


THE 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PHYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Physiology,  vegetable,  comparative,  and  human — Animate  an 
inanimate    Bodies  —  Objects  of  Physiology — Usefulness  of 
Physiological  Knowledge — Illustrations — Evils  of  Ignorance 
—Error  in  separating  Anatomy  and  Physiology  from  their 
practical  Applications — Object  of  the  present  Publication. 

PHYSIOLOGY,  from  Qvds  nature,  and  Aoyo?  discourse, 
signifies  literally  a  discourse  about  natural  powers, 
but,  as  now  used,  it  applies  exclusively  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  uses  or  functions  of  the  different  con- 
stituent parts  of  beings  endowed  with  the  principle 
of  life.  As  applied  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  it  is 
called  Vegetable  Physiology  ;  to  the  lower  animals, 
Comparative  Physiology ;  and  to  man,  Human  Phy- 
siology. In  all  these  instances,  however,  the  objects 
of  physiology  are  the  same,  viz.  the  exposition  of 
the  mechanism  and  laws  by  which  the  various  func- 
tions which  characterize  living  bodies  are  carried 
on,  so  as  to  fit  each  individual  for  the  particular 
sphere  in  which  the  Creator  intended  it  to  exist. 
*  The  grand  mark  of  distinction  between  animate 
and  inanimate  bodies  is  to  be  found  in  the  different 
relations  in  which  they  stand  to  the  ordinary  laws 
of  the  material  world.  Inanimate  or  unorganized 
bodies  have  no  internal  power  of  action,  and  of 
themselves  can  effect  no  change.  Possessed  of 
B 


»  tt  "  < l   AKJMA1TE   AND   INANIMATE    BODIES. 

certain  fixed  and  invariable  properties,  they  stand 
uniformly  in  the  same  relation  to  each  other,  and 
act  invariably  according  to  the  same  general  laws,  so 
that  what  is  once  ascertained  of  them  can  be  pre- 
dicted with  certainty  to  hold  true  for  ever  after  ; 
and,  therefore,  in  conducting  our  investigations,  we 
know  that  the  same  effects  will  always  follow  the 
same  causes  with  mathematical  precision.  But 
when  the  same  elementary  material  becomes  part 
of  a  living  body,  this  rule  no  longer  holds :  the  laws 
of  chymical  and  physical  action  are  greatly  modified, 
or,  for  a  time,  counteracted,  and  the  now  organized 
matter  obeys  the  laws  of  vegetable  or  animal  life, 
and  is  not  again  subjected  to  those  of  chymical 
action,  either  till  eliminated  from  the  body,  or  till 
life  is  extinct ;  and,  in  point  of  fact,  the  putrefaction 
which  instantly  follows  the  extinction  of  the  vital 
principle  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  ordinary 
laws  of  inanimate  matter  resuming  their  dominion 
when  no  longer  opposed  by  a  higher  power. 

An  example  or  two  will  render  the  difference  more 
apparent.  All  bodies  gravitate  towards  the  earth, 
according  to  a  well-known  and  invariable  law.  But 
animals  are  able  to  resist  this  law,  so  far  as  to  pre- 
serve an  attitude  at  variance  with  its  tendency,  or 
even  to  rise,  like  the  eagle,  many  thousand  feet  in 
the  air  in  opposition  to  their  natural  weight ;  but, 
on  the  extinction  of  life,  they  lose  this  power,  and 
again  become  subject  to  the  full  influence  of  gravi- 
tation. In  the  same  way,  many  anin,als  preserve 
an  -elevated  and  steady  temperature,  whether  ex- 
posed to  severe  cold  or  to  excessive  heat ;  but  when 
life  ceases,  rapidly  assume  that  of  the  objects  by 
which  they  are  surrounded.  A  human  being  may, 
for  instance,  be  exposed  to  the  intensest  cold  of  the 
Polar  Regions  without  having  his  own  internal  tem- 
perature reduced  by  a  single  degree  so  long  as  life 
endures  ;  but  from  the  moment  he  ceases  to  exist, 
his  body  begins  to  part  with  its  heat,  and  ere  long  it 


OBJECTS   OF    PHYSIOLOGY.  15 

becomes  frozen  and  stiff  like  the  inanimate  masses 
by  which  it  is  surrounded. 

Here,  then,  is  a  grand  boundary-line  dividing  the 
organized  from  the  inorganized,  the  animate  from 
the  inanimate  body.  Chymistry  and  natural  phi- 
losophy investigate  the  laws  and  conditions  which 
regulate  the  action  and  movements  of  inanimate  or 
inorganized  objects ;  but,  from  what  we  have  seen 
of  the  power  of  the  vital  principle  in  modifying 
these,  it  will  be  manifest  that,  however  extensive 
and  accurate  our  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the 
elementary  materials  of  living  bodies  may  be,  con- 
sidered separately,  we  can  thence  infer  nothing  in 
regard  to  the  qualities  of  the  animal  compound  when 
endowed  with  life,  but  must  resort  to  observation 
and  study  for  the  discovery  of  the  conditions  by 
which  life  is  characterized,  and  under  which  it  is  car- 
ried on. 

Physiology,  or  the  history  of  the  functions  which 
characterize  living-  beings,  is  thus  a  subject  of  pecu- 
liar interest ;  and  human  physiology,  or  that  which 
is  about  to  engage  our  attention,  is  as  important  in 
its  practical  consequences  as  it  is  attractive  to 
rational  curiosity.  In  its  widest  sense  it  compre- 
hends an  exposition  of  the  functions  of  the  various 
organs  of  which  the  human  frame  is  composed ;  of 
the  mechanism  by  which  these  are  carried  on ;  of 
their  mutual  relations  to  each  other;  of  the  means 
of  improving  their  development  and  action;  of 
the  purposes  to  which  they  ought  severally  to  be 
directed ;  and  of  the  manner  in  which  exercise  ought 
to  be  conducted,  so  as  to  secure  for  the  organ  the 
best  health,  and  for  the  function  the  highest  effi- 
ciency. A  true  system  of  physiology  comes  thus 
to  be  the  proper  basis,  not  only  of  a  sound  physical, 
but  of  a  sound  moral  and  intellectual  education,  and 
of  a  rational  hygiene ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  the 
basis  of  every  thing  having  for  its  object  the 
physical  and  mental  health  and  improvement  of 


16  OBJECTS    OF    PHYSIOLOGY. 

man  ;  for,  so  long  as  life  lasts,  the  mental  and  moral 
powers  with  which  he  is  endowed  manifest  them- 
selves through  the  medium  of  organization,  and  no 
plan  which  he  can  devise  for  their  cultivation,  that 
is  not  in  harmony  with  the  laws  which  regulate  that 
organization,  can  possibly  be  successful. 

But,  besides  the  power  of  resisting  the  operation 
of  the  ordinary  chymical  and  physical  laws,  living 
bodies  are  distinguished  by  other  properties  peculiar 
to  themselves.  Unlike  inorganized  matter,  which 
exists  in  the  same  form  from  the  beginning,  bodies  en- 
dowed with  the  principle  of  life  derive  their  origin 
from  previously  existing  living  bodies  of  the  same  na- 
ture as  themselves :  these,  in  their  turn,  give  birth  to 
others,  and  in  this  way  the  succession  is  kept  up. 
Unlike  the  inert  material  which  retains  its  proper- 
ties unaltered  throughout  endless  ages,  the  living 
body  is  constantly  undergoing  changes  from  the  first 
to  the  last  moment  of  its  existence  ;  and  these  are 
exemplified,  on  the  large  scale,  in  the  great  stages 
of  youth,  maturity,  old  age,  and  death.  Unlike 
inorganized  matter,  which  neither  grows  nor  de- 
cays, living  bodies  require  a  constant  supply  of 
nourishment  to  admit  of  their  growth  in  youth,  and 
to  replace  the  worn-out  particles  which  are  regu- 
larly thrown  off  at  every  period  of  life  ;  and,  unlike 
inanimate  objects,  the  relations  and  properties  of 
which  never  alter,  living  bodies  cease  at  last  to 
exist,  and  their  component  elements,  deprived  of  the 
principle  of  life,  again  become  subject  to  the  ordi- 
nary laws  of  matter,  and  are  speedily  decomposed 
and  scattered  about  as  if  life  had  never  been.  These 
properties,  it  maybe  observed,  are  common  to  vege- 
table and  animal  life ;  but  animals  possess  others 
peculiar  to  themselves.  Among  the  most  remark- 
able of  these  are  sensation,  thought,  voluntary 
motion,  and  the  faculty  of  communicating  to  each 
other  their  own  thoughts  and  feelings,  through  the 
medium  of  natural  or  artificial  language.  These 


USEFULNESS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE.    17 

are  great  marks  of  distinction,  and,  considered  in  a 
general  point  of  view,  amply  suffice  to  divide  the 
two  great  classes  of  animated  beings;  and  while 
some  animals  exhibit  individual  powers  in  greater 
perfection,  man  stands  far  their  superior,  not  only 
In  combining  in  his  own  body  all  the  senses  and 
faculties  possessed  among  them,  but  in  being  en- 
dowed with  moral  and  intellectual  powers  which 
are  denied  to  them,  and  which  place  him  at  once  at 
the  head  of  the  living  creation,  and  constitute  him 
a  moral,  religious,  intelligent,  and  responsible  being. 

So  numerous  and  important  are  the  various  organs 
of  which  the  human  frame  is  composed,  and  so 
closely  are  they  linked  with  each  other  in  their 
action,  that,  in  treating  of  them,  it  is  difficult,  or 
rather  impossible,  to  follow  any  arrangement  which 
shall  not  involve  considerable  repetition.  On  the 
present  occasion,  however,  a  systematic  mode  of 
proceeding  is  not  essential,  my  object  being  merely 
to  communicate  a  general  knowledge  of  a  few  of 
the  more  important  functions,  partly  with  a  view  to 
the  direct  practical  purposes  to  which  such  informa- 
tion may  be  applied,  and  partly  for  the  sake  of  rous- 
ing, public  attention  to  the  necessity  of  including 
this  branch  of  science  in  every  plan  of  what  is 
called  a  liberal  education. 

Let  it  not  be  said  that  knowledge  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  superfluous  to  the  unprofessional  reader ;  for 
society  groans  under  the  load  of  suffering  inflicted 
by  causes  susceptible  of  removal,  but  left  in  opera- 
tion in  consequence  of  our  unacquaintance  with  our 
own  structure,  and  of  the  relations  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  system  to  each  other  and  to  external 
objects.  Every  medical  man  must  have  felt  and 
lamented  the  ignorance  so  generally  prevalent  in 
regard  to  the  simplest  functions  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem, and  the  consequent  absence  of  judicious  co- 
operation  of  friends  in  the  care  and  cure  of  the 
sick.  From  unacquaintance  with  the  commonest 
B2 


18    USEFULNESS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE. 

facts  in  physiology,  or  incapability  of  appreciating 
their  importance,  men,  of  much  good  sense  in  every 
other  respect,  not  only  subject  themselves  unwit- 
tingly to  the  active  causes  of  disease,  but  give  their 
sanction  to  laws  and  practices  destructive  equally 
to  life  and  to  morality,  which,  if  they  saw  them  in 
their  true  light,  they  would  shrink  from  counte- 
nancing in  the  slightest  degree. 

For  proof  of  this  1  need  only  refer  to  the  evidence 
on  the  Factories  Regulation  Bill,  which  lately  occu- 
pied so  much  of  public  attention.*  The  law  then 
in  operation  authorized  the  working  of  children  be- 
tween the  years  of  eight  and  sixteen,  in  the  close, 
heated  atmosphere  of  a  cotton-mill,  for  twelve  hours 
a  day;  and,  as  a  great  boon,  the  period  has  been, 
with  much  difficulty,  reduced  from  twelve  to  eight 
hours  for  the  younger  children.  Had  our  legislators 
been  instructed  in  anatomy  and  physiology  so  far 
as  to  obtain  even  the  most  general  notion  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  human  body,  and  had  they  followed 
without  bias  the  conclusions  to  which  such  knowledge 
would  have  led  every  reflecting  mind,  they  would 
never  have  sanctioned  such  a  law  as  that  which  for- 
merly disgraced  the  statute-book,  nor  would  they 
have  shown  any  reluctance  to  modify  its  provisions 
when  its  unfitness  was  pointed  out  to  them.  Had 
such  knowledge  been  familiar  to  their  minds,  and 
morality  been  their  aim,  I  doubt  whether,  instead 
of  objecting  to  the  reduction  when  it  was  proposed, 
any  one  would  have  been  found  hardy  enough  to 
affirm  that  even  the  present  amount  of  labour  is  not 
too  much  for  ungrown  children,  [t  may  be  that  the 
evidence  in  the  printed  report  was  partially  got  up  ; 
but  it  contains  a  multitude  of  facts  so  entirely  in 
accordance  with  the  soundest  and  best  understood 
principles  in  physiology,  which  no  counter-evidence 
can  rebut,  that  one  can  only  lament  the  ignorance 

*  [In  Great  Britain.] 


USEFULNESS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE.    19 

which  prevented  many  able  and  benevolent  but  pre- 
judiced men  from  perceiving  its  true  character,  and 
yielding  at  once  to  the  imperious  dictates  of  nature 
and  of  duty.  That  there  were  great  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  every  alteration  is  quite  true ;  but  surely 
no  question  of  mere  gain  to  any  or  to  every  class 
ought  to  be  allowed  to  stand  for  ever  in  the  way, 
when  the  lives  and  happiness  of  multitudes  of  our 
fellow-creatures  are  at  stake  ;  and  unless  we  begin 
somewhere,  how  can  any  improvement  be  accom- 
plished ? 

Another  instance  of  the  dangers  of  ignorance 
lately  presented  itself.  In  the  Edinburgh  Advertiser 
of  the  1st  March,  1833,  we  are  informed  that  "  a  dis- 
tressing occurrence  was  discovered  on  Wednesday 
forenoon,  on  board  the  Magnus  Troil,  Shetland 
trader,  Captain  Ganson,  lying  at  Leith.  The  master 
and  mate,  who  are  brothers,  went  as  usual  on  Tues- 
day night  to  sleep  in  the  cabin  of  the  vessel,  but  not 
appearing  at  the  Customary  hour  in  the  morning,  the 
crew  thought  they  had  merely  slept  beyond  their 
time.  A  little  time  having  elapsed,  they  were  re- 
peatedly called,  but  no  answer  being  returned,  one 
of  the  men  went  into  the  cabin,  where  he  found  the 
two  brothers  almost  dead  through  suffocation.  It  is 
thought  that  they  had  shut  the  companion  and  sky- 
lights so  close,  that  they  had  during  the  night  ex- 
hausted the  whole  of  the  vital  air  necessary  for  respira- 
tion contained  in  their  confined  situation.  Medical 
aid  was  procured,  and  hopes  are  entertained  of  their 
recovery.  Both  were  much  respected."  Captain 
Ganson,  however,  did  not  recover,  but  died  convulsed 
on  Thursday  morning. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  preceding  statement, 
doubts  have  been  entertained  whether  the  catastro- 
phe resulted  simply  from  confined  air,  or  from  the 
stove  not  having  been  extinguished,  or  from  impure 
air  proceeding  from  the  bilge-water.  The  cause, 
however  to  which  it  may  be  ascribed  is  not  of  much 


20    USEFULNESS   OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE. 

consequence  to  our  argument,  for  it  is  quite  certain 
that  had  Captain  Ganson  and  his  brother  possessed 
the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the  nature  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  the  relation  of  its  elements  to  the  func- 
tion of  respiration,  neither  of  their  lives  would  ever 
have  been  lost  in  such  a  way  as  that  described.  A 
constant  supply  of  pure  air  is  indispensable  to  the 
formation  of  proper  blood  in  the  lungs,  and  conse- 
quently to  the  preservation  of  life  and  the  well-being 
of  the  whole  body ;  but  formerly,  when  this  con- 
dition was  as  little  known  or  regarded  as  it  was  by 
Captain  Ganson,  many  persons  were  shut  up  to- 
gether in  small  ill-ventilated  rooms  in  schools,  jails, 
and  hospitals,  and  the  natural  result  was  a  degree 
of  mortality  from  fevers  and  other  diseases,  which, 
now  that  the  laws  of  respiration  are  better  known 
and  more  attended  to,  is  never  heard  of. 

From  the  same  hurtful  absence  of  knowledge,  a 
law  exists,  or  lately  existed,  in  France,  by  which 
infants  must  be  taken  within  a  very  short  time  after 
being  born  to  the  office  of  the  Maire,  if  it  is  wished 
to  have  their  births  registered.  But  there  is  another 
and  higher  law,  made  by  the  Creator,  with  which 
this  enactment  is  at  variance  ;  and  that  law  renders 
the  infant  incapable  of  bearing  exposure  to  a  low 
temperature  without  injury.  The  consequence  is, 
that  in  winter,  especially  in  places  where  the  Maire 
resides  at  a  distance,  and  where  consequently  there 
is  much  exposure,  a  greater  mortality  takes  place 
than  is  observed  among  infants  placed  under  more 
favourable  circumstances.  Had  the  nature  of  the 
living  functions  been  generally  understood  by  the 
framers  of  such  a  law,  it  is  obvious  that  it  could 
never  have  been  enacted,  for  to  have  done  so  know- 
ingly would  have  been  in  substance  to  legalize  in- 
fanticide. 

One  additional  example  may  be  given.  It  is  well 
understood  among  professional  men,  that  in  speak- 
ing singing,  and  playing  on  wind-instruments,  the 


USEFULNESS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE.     21 

lungs  are  called  into  play  as  powerfully  as  in  running 
or  any  other  species  of  severe  muscular  exercise. 
From  net  adverting  to  this  fact,  a  strongly  consti- 
tuted individual,  who  brought  on  spitting  of  blood 
by  bodily  labour  to  which  ho  had  not  been  accus- 
tomed, conceived  himself  perfectly  safe,  and  even 
cautious,  when  he  gave  up  the  spade,  and  confined 
himself  to  talking  a  great  deal,  which  he  did  daily 
to  numerous  visiters  in  explanation  of  favourite 
views  then  occupying  all  his  thoughts.  The  con- 
sequence was,  that  the  medical  treatment  resorted 
to  was  without  effect,  and  a  fatal  illness  was  brought 
on.  When  the  action  of  the  lungs  was  subsequently 
explained  to  this  individual,  he  saw  at  once  the 
error  into  which  he  had  fallen,  and  lamented  the 
ignorance  which  had  led  to  it,  but  too  late  to  derive 
any  advantage  from  his  knowledge. 

We  are  constantly  meeting  with  anomalies  in 
practical  life,  in  the  case  of  individuals  little  accus- 
tomed, when  in  health,  to  observe  or  reflect  on  the 
influence  of  external  circumstances  and  modes  of 
life  in  disturbing  the  action  of  the  various  animal 
functions,  but  at  the  same  time  easily  and  deeply 
impressed  by  all  extraordinary  occurrences  affecting 
them.  Thus,  when  any  one  is  taken  ill,  his  relatives 
or  friends  become  extremely  anxious  to  have  his 
room  properly  ventilated ;  his  body-clothes  fre- 
quently changed  and  carefully  aired ;  his  food  prop- 
erly regulated  in  quantity  and  quality ;  his  skin 
cleaned  and  refreshed ;  his  mind  amused  and  tran- 
quillized ;  his  sleep  sound  and  undisturbed  ;  and  his 
body  duly  exercised ; — and  they  state  as  the  reason 
for  all  this  care,  and  most  justly,  that  pure  air,  clean- 
liness, attention  to  diet,  cheerfulness,  regular  ex- 
ercise, and  sound  sleep  are  all  highly  conducive  to 
health  And  yet  such  is  the  inconsistency  attendant 
on  ignorance,  that  the  patient  is  no  sooner  restored, 
than  both  he  and  his  guardians  are  often  found  to 
become  as  careless  and  indifferent  in  regard  to  all 


22    USEFULNESS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE. 

the  laws  of  health,  as  if  these  were  entirely  without 
influence,  and  their  future  breach  or  observance 
could  in  no  way  affect  him  !  Just  as  if  it  were  not 
better  by  a  rational  exercise  of  judgment  to  preserve 
health  when  we  have  it,  than  first  to  lose  it,  and 
then  pay  the  penalty  in  suffering  and  danger,  as  an 
indispensable  preliminary  to  its  subsequent  resto- 
ration ! 

One  cause  of  such  anomalous  conduct  is  the  dan- 
gerous and  prevalent  fallacy  of  supposing,  that  be- 
cause glaring  mischief  does  not  instantly  follow 
every  breach  of  an  organic  law,  no  harm  has  been 
done.  Thus,  what  is  more  common  than  to  hear  a 
dyspeptic  invalid,  who  seeks  to  gratify  his  palate, 
say,  that  vegetables,  for  example,  or  pastry,  or  heavy 
puddings,  do  not  disagree  with  him,  as  he  ate  them 
on  such  a  day,  and  felt  no  inconvenience  from  them  ? 
and  the  same  in  regard  to  late  hours,  heated  rooms, 
insufficient  clothing,  and  all  other  sources  of  bad 
health,  every  one  of  which  will,  in  like  manner,  be 
defended  by  some  patient  or  other,  on  the  ground 
that  he  experienced  no  injury  from  them  on  a  cer- 
tain specified  occasion ;  while  all  will  readily  admit 
the  abstract  fact,  that  such  things  are,  and  must  be, 
very  hurtful  to  every  one  else. 

Happy  would  it  often  be  for  suffering  man  could 
he  see  beforehand  the  modicum  of  punishment 
which  his  multiplied  aberrations  from  the  laws  of 
physiology  are  sure  to  bring  upon  him.  But  as,  in 
the  great  majority  of  instances,  the  breach  of  the 
law  is  limited  in  extent,  and  becomes  serious  by  the 
frequency  of  its  repetition  rather  than  by  a  single 
act ;  so  is  the  punishment  gradual  in  its  infliction, 
and  slow  in  manifesting  its  accumulated  effect ;  and 
this  very  gradation,  and  the  distance  of  time  at  which 
the  full  effect  is  produced,  are  the  reasons  why  man, 
in  his  ignorance,  so  often  fails  to  trace  the  connex- 
ion between  his  conduct  in  life  and  his  broken 
health.  But  the  connexion  subsists  although  he 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  23 

does  not  regard  it,  and  the  accumulated  conse- 
quences come  upon  him  when  he  least  expects 
them. 

Thus,  pure  air  is  essential  to  the  full  enjoyment 
of  health ;  and  reason  says,  that  every  degree  of 
vitiation  must  necessarily  be  proportionally  hurtful, 
till  we  arrive  at  that  degree  at  which,  from  its  ex- 
cess, the  continuance  of  life  becomes  impossible. 
When  we  state  this  fact  to  a  delicately  constituted 
female,  who  is  fond  of  frequenting  heated  rooms, 
or  crowded  parties,  theatres,  or  churches,  and  call 
her  attention  to  the  hurtful  consequences  which  she 
must  inflict  on  herself  by  inhaling  the  vitiated  air 
of  such  assemblies,  her  answer  invariably  is,  that 
the  closeness  and  heat  are  very  disagreeable,  but 
that  they  rarely  injure  her :  by  which  she  can  only 
mean,  that  a  single  exposure  to  them  does  not  always 
cause  an  illness  serious  enough  to  send  her  to  bed, 
or  excite  acute  pain ;  although  both  results  are  ad- 
mitted sometimes  to  have  followed.  An  intelligent 
observer,  however,  has  no  difficulty  in  perceiving 
that  they  do  hurt  her,  and  that  although  the  effect 
of  each  exposure  to  their  influence  is  so  gradual  as 
not  to  arrest  attention,  it  is  not  the  less  progressive 
and  influential  in  producing  and  maintaining  that 
general  delicacy  of  health  by  which  she  is  charac- 
terized, and  from  which  no  medical  treatment  can 
relieve  her,  so  long  as  its  active  causes  are  left  in 
operation. 

The  debility  so  generally  complained  of  in  spring 
by  invalids  and  persons  of  a  delicate  constitution, 
and  which  renders  that  season  of  the  year  so  formi- 
dable in  prospect,  and  in  reality  so  fatal,  seems  to 
result  more  from  the  accumulated  effects  of  the 
preceding  winter  months  than  from  any  thing  di- 
rectly inherent  in  the  season  itself.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  winter,  such  persons  feel  compara- 
tively strong  from  the  beneficial  influence  of  expo- 
sure to  the  open  air,  light,  and  exercise,  during  the 


24  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

preceding  months  of  summer  and  autumn.  But  in 
proportion  as  they  are  deprived  of  these  advantages 
by  the  advance  of  winter,  and  are  subjected  to  the 
evil  influence  of  confinement  to  close  rooms,  defi- 
cient exercise,  cold  damp  air,  and  deprivation  of  the 
stimulus  of  light,  the  stamina  of  the  constitution 
become  impaired,  and  debility  and  relaxation  begin 
to  be  felt,  and  make  progress  from  day  to  day,  till 
on  the  arrival  of  spring  they  have  reached  their 
maximum,  and  either  give  rise  to  positive  disease, 
or  gradually  disappear  at  the  return  of  the  invigo- 
rating influence  of  longer  and  warmer  days.  This 
principle,  however,  will  not  apply  where  pulmonary 
or  other  disease  pre-exists;  for  in  such  cases,  the 
east  winds  prevalent  in  spring  are  directly  injurious. 

If  the  above  view  be  correct,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
hurtful  cause  is  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  so 
much  any  positive  quality  of  spring  as  the  accumulated 
mass  of  the  winter  influences  then  reaching  their 
maximum  ;  and  this  is  not  perceived,  only  because 
the  operation  of  the  cause  from  day  to  day,  although 
perfectly  real,  is  too  small  to  attract  notice,  while 
the  aggregate  of  the  many  days  composing  winter 
is  striking  enough.  The  fact  that  those  who  are 
sufficiently  robust  to  undergo  the  necessary  expo- 
sure in  winter  suffer  much  less  in  spring,  seems  to 
corroborate  the  above  explanation. 

We  must  not  suppose,  then,  that  because  a  single 
excess  of  any  kind  does  not  produce  a  direct  attack 
of  disease,  it  is,  therefore,  necessarily  harmless; 
for  it  is  only  when  the  noxious  agent  is  very  pow- 
erful indeed  that  its  deleterious  influence  on  the 
system  becomes  instantly  sensible.  In  the  great 
majority  of  situations  to  which  man  is  exposed  in 
social  life,  it  is  the  continued  or  the  reiterated  appli- 
cation of  less  powerful  causes  which  gradually,  and 
often  imperceptibly,  unless  to  the  vigilant  eye, 
effects  the  change,  and  ruins  the  constitution  before 
danger  is  dreamed  of  And  yet  this  great  truth  is 


EVILS    OF   IGNORANCE.  25 

so  little  known,  that,  if  no  glaring  mischief  has  fol- 
lowed any  particular  practice,  within  at  most  twenty- 
four  hours,  nine  out  of  ten  individuals  will  be  found 
to  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  perfectly 
harmless,  even  where  it  is  capable  of  demonstration 
that  the  reverse  is  the  fact. 

It  is  this  apparent  but  unreal  separation  of  the 
effect  from  its  cause  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
variety  of  opinions  entertained  in  regard  to  the 
qualities  of  the  same  agents,  and  which  has,  per- 
haps, tended  more  than  any  thing  else  to  discourage 
rational  regard  to  the  means  of  preserving  health ; 
and  yet  this  very  variety  is  a  proof  at  once  of  the 
absence  of  sound  views  of  our  own  nature,  and  of 
the  urgent  necessity  of  possessing  them.     In  soci- 
ety, accordingly,  nothing  is  more  common  than  to 
hear  the  most  opposite  opinions  expressed  in  regard 
to  the  evils  or  advantages  of  particular  kinds  of 
clothing,  food,  and  exercise.     One  person  will  affirm 
with  perfect  sincerity  that  flannel  is  pernicious,  be- 
cause it  irritates  the  skin,  and  uniformly  causes  an 
eruption  over  the  whole  body;  and  that  linen  or 
cotton  is  an  excellent  article  of  dress,  because  it 
produces  no  such  consequences.     Another  will  tell 
you  with  equal  truth  that  flannel  is  a  capital  thing, 
because  it  is  pleasant  to  the  feeling,  and  affords 
protection  from  cold  and  rheumatism,  which  linen 
does  not.     One  will  affirm  that  a  long  walk  or  vio- 
lent muscular  exercise  is  an  excellent  tonic,  because 
it  gives  a  keen  appetite,  and  a  vivacity  and  alertness 
which  are  delightful.     But  another  will  declare  that 
a  long  walk  or  severe  exercise  is  exceedingly  inju- 
rious and  debilitating,  because  it  destroys  his  appe- 
tite, and  unfits  him  for  exertion  of  mind  or  body, 
"aid  always  gives  him  headache.     One  will,  in  like 
jianner,   praise  vegetables  as  the  best  diet,  and 
another  animal  food  as  infinitely  superior,  and  so  on 
through  the  whole  range  of  physical  objects  which 
get  upon  the  human  frame,  and  the  natural  conse- 
O 


26  EVILS    OF   IGNCfRANCE. 

quence  of  these  apparent  anomalies  and  contradic- 
tions is,  that  when  in  health,  we  come  practically  td 
look  upon  the  effects  of  air,  food,  exercise,  and  dress 
as  very  much  matters  of  chance,  subject  to  no  fixed 
rule,  and  therefore  little  worth  attending  to,  except 
when  carried  to  palpable  extremes,  or  in  the  cure  of 
disease  ;  and  in  this  way,  man,  instead  of  being  able 
to  protect  his  children  by  the  results  of  his  own 
experience  in  his  journey  through  life,  goes  on  from 
generation  to  generation,  groping  a  little,  then  see- 
ing a  little,  and  then  groping  again,  till  he  arrives, 
often  prematurely,  at  the  end  of  his  existence,  when 
he  stumbles  into  his  grave,  leaving  his  posterity  to 
pass  unaided  through  the  same  series  of  experiments, 
and  arrive  at  the  same  termination  as  himself. 

This  unnatural  result  must  arise  either  from  the 
laws  which  regulate  the  animal  functions  and  the 
operations  of  external  objects  being  variable  and 
ever  changing,  or  from  the  conditions  of  the  living 
body  on  which  they  act  being  different  in  different 
persons,  or  in  the  same  person  at  different  ages  or 
seasons  ;  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine  to  which 
of  these  it  is  to  be  ascribed.  It  cannot  be  to  the 
first,  for  the  laws  of  nature  are  invariable  and  un- 
bending. The  food  which  to-day  nourishes  and 
sustains  the  body,  and  which  to-morrow,  when 
sickness  is  present,  raises  the  pulse  and  excites  the 
heart  to  febrile  action,  has  not  altered  its  qualities 
or  changed  its  relation  to  the  healthy  body.  It  is 
the  state  of  the  body  that  has  changed  and  caused 
the  apparent  discrepancy  of  effect.  In  judging, 
therefore,  of  the  propriety,  advantages,  or  evils  of 
exercise,  food,  and  clothing,  we  must  take  into  con- 
sideration, not  only  the  kind  of  exercise,  the  kind  of 
food,  and  the  kind  of  clothing,  but  also  the  age, 
health,  and  kind  of  constitution  of  the  individual  who 
uses  them,  and  adapt  each  to  the  degree  in  which  it 
is  required;  and  then  we  may  rest  assured  that 
many  of  our  difficulties  will  vanish,  and  certainty 
and  consistency  come  proportionally  into  view. 


ANATOMY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY.  27 

In  cultivating,  and  especially  in  teaching,  medical 
science,  the  different  branches  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed are  habitually  too  much  dissevered  from  each 
other,  and  from  the  practical  consequences  to  which 
they  lead.  The  anatomist  teaches  structure,  and 
structure  only,  and  refers  to  the  physiologist  for  an 
account  of  the  uses  to  which  it  is  subservient.  The 
physiologist,  on  the  other  hand,  expounds  functions, 
but  scarcely  touches  upon  the  instruments  by  which 
they  are  executed.  The  consequence  is,  that  the 
student  often  becomes  disgusted  with  what  he  con- 
siders the  dry  details  of  anatomical  structure,  when 
perhaps  nothing  would  interest  him  more  deeply 
were  the  purposes  which  they  fulfil  in  the  animal 
economy  taught  to  him  at  the  same  time.  Many, 
in  like  manner,  fail  to  take  any  pleasure  in  the  study 
of  physiology,  who  would  be  truly  delighted  to  hear 
the  truths  of  which  it  treats  expounded  more  gene- 
rally in  connexion  with  peculiarities  of  structure, 
and  with  more  frequent  reference  to  their  practical 
applications.  The  anatomist  and  physiologist  err, 
in  short,  in  limiting  themselves  too  exclusively  to 
the  objects  of  their  respective  departments,  and 
devoting  too  little  attention  to  the  relations  which 
these  bear  to  each  other  and  to  the  great  unit, — the 
living  being,  of  which  they  form  a  part. 

The  result  of  this  system  is,  that  the  young  prac- 
titioner is  educated  without  having  made  himself 
sufficiently  familiar  with  the  conditions  on  which 
the  healthy  action  of  the  animal  economy  depends, 
or  having  even  rightly  appreciated  the  importance 
of  such  knowledge :  and  that,  consequently,  in  com- 
mon with  his  patient,  he  sometimes  unwittingly 
allows  the  operation  of  morbid  causes  to  go  on 
without  interference,  where,  by  a  timely  warning  on 
his  part,  serious  illness  might  have  been  averted ; 
or  unconsciously  permits  the  gradual  ripening  of 
hereditary  tendencies  into  active  disease,  which 
rational  precautions,  early  resorted  to,  might  have 


28  ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

kept  in  subjection  throughout  a  long  period  of  ex- 
istence. 

The  general  diffusion  of  a  knowledge  of  physiol- 
ogy among  the  intelligent  classes  of  society  will  be 
attended  with  this  great  advantage,  that  more  atten- 
tion will  be  paid  to  the  preservation  of  health  and 
the  prevention  of  disease  than  is  at  present  practica- 
ble. The  medical  man  will  then  be  able  to  advise 
with  increased  effect,  because  he  will  be  propor- 
tionally well  understood.  It  is  a  very  different 
thing  to  comply  blindly  with  the  directions  which 
come  to  us  simply  on  the  authority  of  a  man  like 
ourselves,  and  to  comply  intelligently  with  those 
which  claim  our  obedience  on  the  authority  of  the 
Creator. 

It  cannot  be  top  constantly  kept  in  view  by  medi- 
cal men,  that  their  true  province  is  to  preserve  as 
well  as  restore  the  health  of  those  who  intrust 
themselves  and  their  families  to  their  care  ;  and  that 
it  behooves  them  to  turn  their  knowledge  to  account, 
in  giving  the  greatest  degree  of  security  to  their 
employers  which  their  circumstances  and  situation 
in  life  will  admit  of,  as  well  as  in  prescribing  for 
actual  disease.  The  day  is,  perhaps,  not  very  far 
distant,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  improvements 
both  in  professional  and  in  general  education  now  in 
progress,  a  degree  of  importance  will  become  at- 
tached to  this  application  of  medical  science,  far 
surpassing  what  those  who  have  not  reflected  on  the 
subject  will  be  able  to  imagine  as  justly  belonging 
to  it,  but  by  no  means  exceeding  that  which  it  trul> 
deserves. 

Some  professional  men  are  of  opinion,  that  it  is 
best,  in  all  cases,  to  leave  the  patient  in  ignorance 
of  his  own  structure  and  functions,  and  to  assign  no 
reasons  for  any  thing  recommended ;  while  others 
maintain,  that  advice  is  never  so  .willingly  attended 
to  as  when  the  reason  of  th«  patient  is  addressed 
and  a  general  explanation  of  the  case  given,  so  far 


OBJECT    IN    VIEW.  29 

as  it  can  be  easily  understood.  There  are  some  per- 
sons, indeed,  who  prefer  being  simply  told  what 
they  are  to  do,  and  are  more  manageable  when  dic- 
tated to  than  reasoned  with ;  and  there  are  also 
many  things  in  practice  for  which  it  would  be 
puzzling  to  assign  a  valid  reason,  but,  generally 
speaking,  those  whose  reason  is  enlightened  will 
be  found  to  co-operate  more  effectually  in  the  mea- 
sures required  for  their  recovery  than  those  who 
are  left  in  the  dark. 

In  acute  diseases,  of  course,  explanation  of  any 
kind  is  often  precluded.  Here  the  professional  man 
must  act,  and  act  with  decision.  But  the  great 
majority  of  ailments  are  of  a  chronic  character,  in 
the  cure  of  which  the  steady  co-operation  of  the 
patient  is  almost  indispensable.  And  even  when 
the  malady  is  acute,  a  patient  will  submit  to  severe 
measures  much  more  readily  when  ordered  by  an 
adviser  who  has  been  in  the  habit  of  addressing  his 
reason  when  opportunity  occurred,  than  when  pre- 
scribed by  one  who  has  adopted  an  opposite  course. 

My  object,  accordingly,  in  submitting  the  follow- 
ing pages  to  the  public,  is  not  to  supersede  the 
physician,  by  making  "  every  man  his  own  doctor," 
or  by  recommending  the  general  perusal  of  profes- 
sional treatises,  for  both  practices  induce  many 
more  ailments  than  they  cure  ;  but  simply  to  assist 
in  diffusing  such  a  general  acquaintance  with  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  human  body,  as  will 
enable  individuals  to  adopt  the  best  means  for  de- 
veloping their  mental  and  bodily  powers ;  to  pro- 
tect themselves  from  the  more  common  causes  of 
disease,  and  to  co-operate  with  effect  in  the  re- 
covery of  themselves  or  their  friends  when  sick. 
In  endeavouring  partially  to  fulfil  this  object,  I 
have  the  general  reader  alone  in  view,  and  do  not 
pretend  to  offer  any  thing  new  to  the  profession,  for 
the  subjects  treated  of  mus-t  be  familiar  to  every 
practitioner.  At  the  same  time,  I  am  not  without 
C2 


30  THE    SKIN. 

hope  that  the  method  followed  of  connecting  details 
with  practical  applications  may  be  found  useful  to 
the  student,  and  help  to  direct  him  in  his  future  in- 
quiries. 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Skin— Composed  of  three  Layers— The  Cuticle— Its  Struc 
ture  and  Uses — The  mucous  Coat — The  Seat  of  Colour — The 
true  Skin — Its  Structure — The  Seat  of  Perspiration — Its  Na- 
ture— Consequences  of  suppressed  Perspiration — Sympathy 
between  the  Skin  and  other  Organs — The  Skin  a  Regulator  of 
Animal  Heat — The  Seat  of  Absorption — Touch  and  Sensation 
—-Connextion  between  the  Skin  and  Nervous  System. 

IN  selecting  the  subjects  of  the  following  essays, 
I  shall  be  guided  partly  by  the  intrinsic  importance 
of  the  functions  of  which  they  treat  to  the  well-being 
of  the  animal  economy  ;  and  partly  by  the  compara- 
tive ignorance  which  prevails  in  regard  to  them. 
Hitherto  the  digestive  functions  have  formed  the 
most  prominent  topic  of  popular  disquisition,  and  a 
great  mass  of  information  has,  from  time  to  time, 
been  laid  before  the  public,  with  a  view  to  induce 
greater  attention  to  the  regulation  of  diet  and  regi- 
men; and  the  action  of  digestive  order  in  deranging 
the  general  health  and  modifying  the  progress  of 
disease  has  also  been  sedulously  pointed  out.  But 
there  are  other  organs  and  functions,  of  nearly 
equal  interest,  which  have  been  much  less  attended 
to  than  they  deserve,  and  with  which  the  general 
reader  is  very  little  familiar.  Among  these  the 
skin,  the  muscles,  the  bones,  the  lungs,  and  the 
nervous  system  may  be  mentioned  as  most  worthy 
of  notice,  and  I  shall  accordingly  endeavour  to  give 
such  an  account  of  them  in  succession  as  will  be 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SKIN.  31 

both  intelligible  and  of  direct  practical  utility  to 
every  one.  I  shall  commence  with  an  explanation 
of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  skin. 

The  skin  is  that  membranous  covering  which  is 
spread  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  body,  and 
which  serves  to  bind  together,  and  to  protect  from 
injury,  the  subjacent  and  more  delicate  textures.  In 
different  animals,  and  at  different  parts  of  the  body, 
it  assumes  different  appearances.  It  is  smooth,  soft, 
and  delicate  in  youth,  and  in  females ;  firmer  and 
more  resisting  in  middle  age,  and  in  males ;  flabby  and 
wrinkled  in  old  age,  and  after  disease ;  puckered  or 
disposed  in  folds  in  places  that  admit  of  extensive 
flexion,  as  over  the  finger-joints,  and  in  the  palm  of 
the  hand;  and  thick  and  horny  where  it  is  subjected 
to  the  influence  of  pressure,  as  in  the  soles  of  the 
feet. 

The  structure  of  the  skin,  like  that  of  every  other 
part  of  the  animal  frame,  displays  the  most  striking 
proofs  of  the  transcendent  wisdom  and  beneficence 
of  its  great  Creator.  Though  simple  in  appearance 
and  in  design,  it  is  a  compound  of  many  elements, 
and  the  seat  of  as  great  a  variety  of  functions.  It  is 
composed  of  three  layers  of  membrane,  viz.  the  thin 
scarf-skin  or  cuticle,  the  mucous  coat,  and  the  thick 
true  skin,  as  it  is  called,  which  immediately  encom- 
passes the  body.  These  distinctions  should  be  kept 
in  view,  for,  as  it  is  a  general  law  of  the  animal 
economy  that  every  part  has  a  use  or  function 
peculiar  to  itself,  the  various  uses  of  the  compound 
can  be  understood  only  by  attending  to  those  of  the 
simple  elements. 

The  epidermis,  cuticle,  or  scarf-skin,  is  the  outer- 
most of  the  three  layers,  and  is  that  which  is  raised 
in  blisters.  It  is  a  thin  continuous  and  insensible 
membrane,  has  no  perceptible  blood-vessels  or  nerves, 
and  consequently  neither  bleeds  nor  feels  pain  when 
cut  or  abraded.  Being  homogeneous  in  structure, 


52  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    CUTICLE. 

it  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  merely  an  exudation 
of  albuminous  mucus  ;  and  although  depressions  are 
obvious  on  its  surface,  and  exhalation  and  absorp- 
tion are  proved  to  be  carried  on  through  its  sub- 
stance, it  is  still  in  dispute  whether  it  be  actually 
porous  or  not.  Probability  is  in  favour  of  the  affirm- 
ative, and  the  circumstance  of  the  pores  not  being 
visible  is  no  proof  to  the  contrary,  for  the  cuticle  is 
.so  elastic  that  it  may  be  perforated  by  a  needle, 
and  yet  the  hole  not  be  discernible  even  under  the 
microscope.  The  question  is,  however,  one  of  little 
moment,  provided  it  be  remembered  that  its  texture, 
whether  perforated  or  not,  is  such  as  to  admit  of  ex- 
halation and  absorption  taking  place  through  its  sub- 
stance. 

The  structure  of  the  cuticle  is  in  admirable  har- 
mony with  its  uses.  Placed  as  an  insensible  inter- 
medium between  external  objects  and  the  delicate 
nervous  expansion  on  the  surface  of  the  subjacent 
true  skin,  it  serves  as  a  physical  defence  against 
friction ;  and  while,  by  impeding  evaporation,  it 
preserves  the  true  skin  in  that  soft  and  moist  state 
which  is  essential  to  its  utility,  it  also,  by  impeding 
absorption,  enables  man  to  expose  himself  without 
injury  to  the  action  of  numerous  agents,  which,  but 
for  its  protection,  would  immediately  be  absorbed, 
and  cause  the  speedy  destruction  of  health  and  life. 
This  is  remarkably  exemplified  in  several  trades, 
where  the  workman  is  unavoidably  exposed  to  an 
atmosphere  loaded  with  metallic  and  poisonous 
vapours,  or  obliged  to  handle  poisonous  substances , 
and  where,  without  the  obstruction  of  the  cuticle, 
the  evil  to  which  he  is  subjected  would  be  aggra- 
vated a  hundred  fold.  Being  destitute  of  nerves, 
the  cuticle  is  not  hurt  by  the  direct  contact  of  ex- 
ternal bodies,  and  being  very  thin,  it  blunts  without 
impairing  the  distinctness  of  the  impression  made 
on  the  nerves  of  sensation.  The  necessity  of  this 
latter  provision  becomes  verv  "bvious  when  the 


USES    OF    THE    CUTICLE.  33 

cuticle  is  abraded  or  removed  by  vesication.  The 
surface  below  is  then  found  to  be  too  tender  and 
irritable  for  the  exercise  of  touch,  and  conveys  to 
the  mind  scarcely  any  other  sensation  than  that  of 
pain.  For  the  same  reason,  those  parts  of  the  skin 
which  are  most  exposed  to  pressure  and  friction, 
such  as  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet, 
are  provided  with  a  thicker  cuticle  to  defend  them 
from  injury. 

The  greater  thickness  of  the  cuticle  in  such  situa- 
tions is  manifestly  the  intentional  work  of  the  Cre- 
ator, for  it  is  perceptible  even  at  birth,  before  use 
can  have  exercised  any  influence.  Indeed,  were 
the  tender  skin  not  so  protected,  every  violent  con- 
traction of  the  hand  upon  a  rough  and  hard  surface, 
and  every  step  made  on  uneven  ground,  would  cause 
pain,  and  disable  us  for  exertion. 

By  another  beneficent  provision,  calculated  to  af- 
ford increased  protection  according  to  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  individual,  it  happens  that,  when  a  part  is 
much  used,  the  cuticle  covering  it  becomes  thicker 
and  thicker  within  certain  limits,  till  in  extreme 
cases  it  becomes  as  thick,  hard,  and  resisting  as 
horn.  It  is  this  thickening  of  the  epidermis  on  the 
lady's  finger  that  alone  enables  her  to  wield  with 
impunity  that  important  instrument  the  needle. 
And  it  is  the  same  thickening  that  fits  the  black- 
smith and  the  mason,  the  stone-breaker  and  the 
boatman,  to  ply  their  trades,  without  that  painful 
blistering  which  the  young  apprentice  or  unaccus- 
tomed labourer  so  regularly  undergoes,  and  which 
must  have  continued  to  recur  for  ever,  had  the  cuti- 
cle been  organized  with  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  or 
not  subjected  to  this  law  of  becoming  thicker  wher- 
ever increased  protection  is  required. 

Another  modification  of  the  cuticle  to  suit  a  modi- 
fication of  circumstances  is  that  observed  in  the 
nails.  These  belong  to  the  scarf-skin,  and  separate 
with  it ;  and,  like  it,  they  have  neither  blood-vessels 


34  STRUCTURE  AND  USES  OF  THE  MUCOUS  COAT. 

nor  nerves,  and  may  be  cut  or  bruised  without  pain. 
\yhen  the  hand  or  foot  is  macerated  in  water,  the 
nails  and  the  cuticle  show  their  identity  of  organ- 
ization, by  separating  together  from  the  dermis  or 
true  skin  below.  The  nails,  like  the  cuticle,  serve 
chiefly  to  protect  the  subjacent  parts  from  injury ; 
and,  accordingly,  in  those  lower  animals  whose 
manner  of  life  subjects  their  feet  to  continual  pres- 
sure, and  requires  no  nice  exercise  of  touch,  Nature 
has  provided  horny  and  resisting  hoofs  for  their  pro 
tection,  instead  of  a  merely  thickened  epidermis. 

To  produce  thickening  of  the  cuticle,  exercise 
must  be  gradual,  and  not  too  severe.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, a  person  takes  a  very  long  walk,  rows  a  boat, 
or  makes  use  of  a  heavy  hammer  for  a  few  hours, 
without  having  been  accustomed  to  such  an  effort, 
there  is  no  time  for  the  cuticle  to  thicken,  and  de- 
fend itself  from  the  unusual  friction.  The  parts 
below,  being  inadequately  protected,  become  irri- 
tated and  inflamed,  and  throw  out  a  quantity  of 
watery  fluid  or  serum  on  their  surface,  which  raises 
up  the  cuticle  in  blisters,  and  by  making  it  painful 
to  continue  the  pressure,  obliges  the  person  to  de- 
sist from  an  exercise  which,  if  continued,  would 
evidently  soon  alter  the  structure  of  the  sentient 
nervous  filaments,  and  for  ever  unfit  them  for  theii 
proper  uses :  so  that  even  in  this  result  beneficence 
and  wisdom  are  prominently  displayed. 

Immediately  beneath  the  scarf-skin,  and  between 
it  and  the  true  skin,  is  the  mucous  coat,  rete  mucosum, 
or  mucous  network,  which  is  remarkable  chiefly  as 
being  the  seat  of  the  colouring  matter  of  the  skin. 
It  is  seen  with  difficulty  on  dissection  except  in 
Negroes,  in  whom  it  is  thick.  It  is  exceedingly 
attenuated  in  albinos,  and  is  in  fact  thick  in  propor- 
tion to  the  depth  of  colour.  It  is  destitute  of  blood- 
vessels and  nerves,  but,  like  the  epidermis,  is  per- 
meable by  other  bodies.  The  colouring  matter  is 
said  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  blood  ;  Davy  and 
Blumenbach,  however,  regard  it  as  carbon. 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE   TRUE    SKIN.  35 

From  all  that  is  known  regarding  the  mucous  coat, 
it  may  be  viewed  generally  as  merely  a  thin  soft 
covering,  placed  between  the  outer  and  the  inner 
skin,  to  protect  the  nerves  and  vessels  of  the  latter 
and  give  them  their  requisite  softness  and  pliancy. 
Being  of  a  dark  colour  in  the  Negro,  it  has  been 
supposed  to  diminish  the  heating  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays  in  tropical  climates  by  the  higher  radia- 
ting power  which  is  possessed  by  a  black  than  by  a 
light  surface ;  but  there  is  reason  to  doubt  the 
soundness  of  the  theory  at  least,  for  black  is  well 
known  to  excel  in  absorbing,  as  well  as  in  radiating, 
heat ;  and  late  experiments  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
seem  to  show,  that  the  temperature  of  the  Negro 
is  actually  about  two  degrees  higher  than  that  of 
the  European  under  the  same  circumstances. 

The  mucous  coat  is  the  seat  of  the  beautiful  and 
variegated  colouring  observed  in  the  skins  of  many 
fishes  and  other  animals,  in  which  it  has  often  a  high 
and  almost  metallic  splendour. 

The  third  or  inmost  layer,  called  the  true  skin,  der- 
mis,  or  corion,  constitutes  the  chief  thickness  of  the 
skin,  and  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  three, 
both  in  structure  and  functions.  Unlike  the  cuticle 
and  mucous  coat,  which  are  homogeneous  in  their 
whole  extent,  and  apparently  without  organization, 
the  true  skin,  or  simply,  as  we  shall  call  it  for 
brevity's  sake,  the  skin,  is  very  delicately  organized, 
and  endowed  with  the  principle  of  life  in  a  very  high 
degree.  Not  only  is  it  the  beautiful  and  efficacious 
protector  of  the  subjacent  structures,  but  it  is  the 
seat  of  sensation  and  of  touch,  and  the  instrument 
of  a  very  important  exhalation,  viz.  perspiration,  the 
right  condition  or  disturbance  of  which  is  a  most 
powerful  agent  in  the  preservation  or  subversion  of 
the  general  health.  The  dermis  is  a  dense,  firm,  and 
resistant  tissue,  possessed  of  great  extensibility  and 
elasticity,  and  of  a  colour  more  or  less  red  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  blood  it  receives  and  con- 


36  STRUCTURE    OF    THE   TRUE    SKIN. 

tains.  Its  looser  internal  surface,  which  is  united 
to  the  cellular  membrane  in  which  the  fat  is  de- 
posited, presents  a  great  number  of  cells  or  cavities, 
which  penetrate  obliquely  into  the  substance,  and 
towards  the  external  surface,  of  the  skin,  and  also 
contain  fatty  matter.  These  areolae  or  cells  are 
larger  on  some  parts  of  the  body  than  on  others : 
they  are  very  small  on  the  back  of  the  hand  and 
foot,  the  forehead,  and  other  places  where  fat  is 
never  deposited  and  the  skin  is  very  thin;  while 
they  are  large  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  sole  of 
the  foot,  where  the  skin  is  consequently  thicker  and 
fat  abounds.  These  cells  are  traversed  by  innumer- 
able blood-vessels  and  filaments  of  nerves,  which 
pass  through  to  be  ramified  on  the  outer  surface  of 
the  skin,  where  they  show  themselves  in  the  form 
of  numerous  small  papillae  or  points,  which  are  very 
visible  on  the  surface  of  the  tongue,  and  on  the 
fingers  and  palm  of  the  hand.  These  papillae  con- 
stitute the  true  organs  of  touch  and  sensation,  and 
are  therefore  most  thickly  planted  where  these 
senses  are  most  acute. 

The  true  skin  is  so  abundantly  supplied  with  blood 
and  nervous  power,  that,  for  practical  purposes,  it 
may  almost  be  regarded  as  composed  of  vessels  and 
nerves  alone ;  and  it  is  important  to  notice  this  fact. 
The  universal  and  equal  redness  of  the  skin  in  blush- 
ing is  itself  a  proof  of  great  vascularity ;  but  a  still 
stronger  consists  in  our  being  unable  to  direct  the 
point  of  the  finest  needle  into  any  spot  without 
puncturing  a  vessel  and  drawing  blood.  The  same 
test  proves  the  equal  abundance  of  nervous  filaments 
in  the  skin,  for  not  a  point  can  be  punctured  without 
transfixing  a  nerve  and  causing  pain ;  and  it  is  well 
known,  that  in  surgical  operations  and  accidental 
wounds,  the  chief  pain  is  always  in  the  skin,  be- 
cause it  is  profusely  supplied  with  nerves  on  pur- 
pose to  serve  as  the  instrument  of  feeling.  From 
these  examples,  the  skin  may  be  truly  considered  as 


USES   OF   THE    TRUE   SKIN*  37 

a  network  of  blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the  finest 
conceivable  texture ;  and,  taking  the  vast  extent  of 
its  whole  surface  (estimated  to  exceed  in  a  man  of 
average  size  2500  square  inches)  into  account,  we 
can  easily  understand  how  these  minute  ramifi- 
cations may  really  constitute  a  larger  mass  of  ner- 
vous matter  than  is  contained  in  the  original  trunks 
of  the  nerves  from  which  they  are  incorrectly  said 
to  arise,  and  also  how  so  large  a  proportion  of  the 
whole  blood  may  be  circulating  through  the  skin  at 
one  time. 

To  understand  the  important  purposes  of  the  true 
skin,  we  must  distinguish  between  its  constituent 
parts,  and  consider  it,  in  virtue  of  each  of  them, — 
1st,  As  an  exhalant  of  waste  matter  from  the  sys- 
tem ;  2d,  As  a  joint  regulator  of  the  heat  of  the 
body  ;  3d,  As  an  agent  of  absorption ;  and,  4th,  As 
the  seat  of  sensation  and  touch. 

Besides  performing  the  mechanical  office  of  a 
shield  to  the  parts  beneath,  the  skin  is  admirably 
fitted,  by  the  great  supply  of  blood  which  it  receives, 
for  its  use  as  a  secreting  and  excreting  organ.  The 
whole  animal  system  is  in  a  state  of  constant  decay 
and  renovation;  and  while  the  stomach  and  ali- 
mentary canal  take  in  new  materials,  the  skin  forms 
one  of  the  principal  outlets  or  channels  by  which 
the  old,  altered,  or  useless  particles  are  eliminated 
from  the  body.  Every  one  knows  that  the  skin 
perspires,  and  that  checked  perspiration  is  a  power- 
ful cause  of  disease  and  of  death ;  but  few  have  any 
just  notion  of  the  real  extent  and  influence  of  this 
exhalation,  such  as  we  shall  attempt  to  exhibit  it. 
When  the  body  is  overheated  by  exercise  in  warm 
weather,  a  copious  sweat  soon  breaks  out,  which, 
by  carrying  off  the  superfluous  heat,  produces  an 
agreeable  feeling  of  coolness  and  refreshment.  This 
is  the  higher  and  more  obvious  degree  of  the  function 
of  exhalation ;  but,  in  the  ordinary  state,  the  skin  is 
D 


38  INSENSIBLE    PERSPIRATION. 

constantly  giving  out  a  large  quantity  of  waste  ma- 
terials by  what  is  called  insensible  perspiration,  a 
process  which  is  of  great  importance  to  the  preser- 
vation of  health,  and  which  is  called  insensible, 
because  the  exhalation,  being  in  the  form  of  vapour, 
and  carried  off  by  the  surrounding  air,  is  invisible  to 
the  eye ;  but  its  presence  may  often  be  made  mani- 
fest even  to  sight  by  the  ne»r  approach  of  a  dry  cool 
mirror,  on  the  surface  of  which  it  will  soon  be  con~ 
densed  so  as  to  become  visible. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  estimate  accu- 
rately the  amount  of  exhalation  carried  off  through 
the  skin ;  but  so  many  difficulties  stand  in  the  way 
of  obtaining  precise  results,  and  the  difference  in 
different  constitutions  and  even  in  the  same  person 
at  different  times  is  so  great,  that  we  must  be  satis- 
fied with  an  approximation  to  the  truth.  Sanctorius, 
who  carefully  weighed  himself,  his  food,  and  his  ex- 
cretions, in  a  balance,  every  day  for  thirty  years, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  Jive  out  of  every  eight 
pounds  of  substance  taken  into  the  system  passed  out 
of  it  again  by  the  skin,  leaving  only  three  to  pass  off  by 
the  bowels,  the  lungs,  and  the  kidneys.  The  cele- 
brated Lavoisier  and  M.  Seguin  afterward  entered 
on  the  same  field  of  inquiry,  and  with  greater  suc- 
cess, as  they  were  the  first  to  distinguish  between 
the  cutaneous  and  pulmonary  exhalations.  M.  Se- 
guin shut  himself  up  in  a  bag  of  glazed  taffetas,  which 
was  tied  over  his  head  and  provided  with  a  hole,  the 
edges  of  which  were  glued  to  his  lips  with  a  mixture 
of  turpentine  and  pitch,  so  that  the  pulmonary  ex- 
halation might  be  thrown  outwards,  and  the  cutane- 
ous alone  be  retained  in  the  bag.  He  first  weighed 
himself  and  the  bag  in  a  very  nice  balance,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment ;  then  at  the  end  of  it, 
when  he  had  become  lighter  in  proportion  to- the 
quantity  of  exhalation  thrown  out  by  the  breathing ; 
and,  lastly,  he  weighed  himself  out  of  the  bag,  to 
ascertain  how  much  weight  he  had  lost  in  all ;  aad 


INSENSIBLE    PERSPIRATION.  39 

by  subtracting-  the  loss  occasioned  by  the" lungs,  the 
remainder  of  course  exhibited  the  amount  carried 
off  by  the  skin.  He  attended  minutely  also  to  the 
collateral  circumstances  of  diet,  temperature,  &c. ; 
and  allowance  being  made  for  these,  the  results  at 
which  he  arrived  were  the  following: — 

The  largest  quantity  of  insensible  perspiration 
from  the  lungs  and  skin  together  amounted  to  thirty- 
two  grains  per  minute ;  three  ounces  and  a  quarter 
per  hour ;  or  five  pounds  per  day.  Of  this  the  cu- 
taneous constituted  two-thirds,  or  sixty  ounces  in 
twenty-four  hours.  The  smallest  quantity  observed 
amounted  to  eleven  grains  per  minute,  or  one  pound 
eleven  and  a  half  ounces  in  twenty-four  hours,  of 
which  the  skin  furnished  about  twenty  ounces.  The 
medium  or  average  amount  was  eighteen  grains  a 
minute,  of  which  eleven  were  from  the  skin,  making 
in  twenty-four  hours  about  thirty-three  ounces.  When 
the  extent  of  surface  which  the  skin  presents  is  con- 
sidered, these  results  do  not  seem  extravagant.  But 
even  admitting  that  there  may  be  some  unperceived 
source  of  fallacy  in  the  experiments,  and  that  the 
quantity  is  not  so  great  as  is  here  stated,  still,  after 
making  every  allowance,  enough  remains  to  demon- 
strate that  exhalation  is  a  very  important  function 
of  the  skin.  And  although  the  precise  amount  of 
perspiration  may  be  disputed,  still  the  greater  num- 
ber of  observers  agree  that  the  cutaneous  exhala- 
tion is  more  abundant  than  the  united  excretions 
of  both  bowels  and  kidneys ;  and  that,  according  as 
the  weather  becomes  warmer  or  colder,  the  skin 
and  kidneys  alternate  in  the  proportions  of  work 
which  they  severally  perform  ;  most  passing  off  by 
the  skin  in  warm  weather,  and  by  the  kidneys  in 
cold,  and  vice  versa.  The  quantity  exhaled  increases 
after  meals,  during  sleep,  in  dry  warm  weather,  and 
by  friction  or  whatever  stimulates  the  skin  ;  and  di- 
minishes when  digestion  is  impaired,  and  in  a  moist 
atmosphere 


40  SENSIBLE    PERSPIRATION. 

What  we  have  considered  relates  only  to  the  in- 
sensible perspiration.  That  which  is  caused  by 
great  heat  or  severe  exercise  is  evolved  in  much 
greater  quantity ;  and  by  accumulation  at  the  sur- 
face, it  becomes  visible,  and  forms  sweat.  In  this 
way,  a  robust  man  may  lose  two  or  three  pounds' 
weight  in  the  course  of  one  hour's  severe  exertion  ; 
and  if  this  be  suddenly  checked,  the  consequences 
-:  in  certain  states  of  the  system  are  often  of  the  most 
serious  description.  When  the  surface  of  the  body 
is  chilled  by  cold,  the  blood-vesesls  of  the  skin  be- 
come contracted  in  their  diameter,  and  hinder  the 
free  entrance  of  the  red  particles  of  the  blood,  which 
are  therefore  of  necessity  collected  and  retained  in 
greater  quantity  in  the  internal  organs,  where  the 
heat  varies  very  little.  The  skin  consequently  be- 
comes pale,  and  its  papillae  contract,  forming  by 
their  erection  what  is  called  the  goose's  skin. 
In  this  state  it  becomes  less  fit  for  its  uses ;  the 
sense  of  touch  can  no  longer  nicely  discriminate  the 
qualities  of  bodies,  and  a  cut  or  bruise  may  be  re- 
ceived with  comparatively  little  pain.  From  the  op- 
pression of  too  much  blood,  the  internal  organs,  on 
the  other  hand,  work  heavily :  the  mental  faculties 
are  weakened,  sleepiness  is  induced,  respiration  is 
oppressed,  the  circulation  languishes,  and  digestion 
ceases ;  and  if  the  cold  be  very  intense,  the  vital 
functions  are  at  last  extinguished  without  pain,  and 
without  a  struggle.  This  is  a  picture  of  the  ex- 
tremes ;  but  the  same  causes  which  in  an  aggravated 
form  occasion  death  produce,  when  applied  in  a 
minor  degree,  effects  equally  certain,  although  not 
equally  marked  or  speedy  in  their  appearance. 

According  to  Thenard,  the  cutaneous  exhalation 
»  composed  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  and  a 
small  portion  of  acetic  acid,  of  muriates  of  soda  and 
potass,  of  an  earthy  phosphate,  a  little  oxide  of  iron, 
and  some  animal  matter;  but  Berzelius  considers 
the  acid  as  lactic,  and  not  the  acetic.  Some  car- 


NATURE    OF    PERSPIRATION.  41 

bonic  acid  and  oily  matter  also  are  excreted.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  composition  of  the  per- 
spiration varies  both  at  different  ages  and  on  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  skin,  as  is  presumable  from  the  pe- 
culiarity of  odour  which  it  exhales  in  some  situa- 
tions. The  armpits,  the  groins,  the  forehead,  the 
hands,  and  the  feet  perspire  most  readily,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  receiving  a  proportionally  larger 
supply  of  blood.  Every  thing  tends  to  show  that 
perspiration  is  a  direct  product  of  a  vital  process, 
and  not  a  mere  exudation  of  watery  particles 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 

Taking  even  the  lowest  estimate  of  Lavoisier,  we 
find  the  skin  endowed  with  the  important  charge 
of  removing  from  the  system  about  twenty  ounces 
of  waste  matter  every  twenty-four  hours ;  and  when 
we  consider  that  the  quantity  not  only  is  great,  but 
is  sent  forth  in  so  divided  a  state  as  to  be  invisible 
to  the  eye,  and  that  the  whole  of  it  is  given  out  by 
the  very  minute  ramifications  of  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  skin,  we  perceive  at  once  why  these  are  so 
extremely  numerous  that  a  pin's  point  cannot  touch 
any  spot  without  piercing  them ;  and  we  see  an 
ample  reason  why  checked  perspiration  should 
prove  so  detrimental  to  health, — because  for  every 
twenty-four  hours  during  which  such  a  state  con- 
tinues we  must  either  have  twenty  ounces  of  use- 
less and  hurtful  matter  accumulating  in  the  body, 
or  have  some  of  the  other  organs  of  excretion 
grievously  overtasked,  which  obviously  cannot 
happen  without  disturbing  their  regularity  and  well- 
being.  People  know  the  fact  and  wonder  that  it 
should  be  so,  that  cold  applied  to  the  skin,  or  con- 
tinued exposure  in  a  cold  day,  often  produces  a 
bowel  complaint,  a  severe  cold  in  the  chest,  or  in- 
flammation of  some  internal  organ ;  but  were  they 
taught,  as  they  ought  to  be,  the  structure  and  uses 
of  their  own  bodies,  they  would  rather  wonder  that 
it  did  not  always  produce  one  of  these  effects. 
PI 


42        RECIPROCAL  ACTION  BETWEEN  THE  SKIN 

In  tracing  the  connexion  between  suppressed 
perspiration  and  the  production  of  individual  dis- 
eases, we  shall  find  that  those  organs  which  possess 
some  similarity  of  function  sympathize  most  closely 
with  each  other.  Thus  the  skin,  the  bowels,  the 
lungs,  the  liver,  and  the  kidneys  sympathize  readily, 
because  they  have  all  the  common  office  of  throw- 
ing waste  matter  out  of  the  system,  each  in  a  way 
peculiar  to  its  own  structure  ;  so  that  if  the  exhala- 
tion from  the  skin,  for  example,  be  stopped  by  long 
exposure  to  cold,  the  large  quantity  of  waste  which 
it  was  charged  to  excrete,  and  which  in  itself  is 
hurtful  to  the  system,  will  most  probably  be  thrown 
upon  one  or  other  of  the  above-named  organs,  whose 
function  will  consequently  become  excited  ;  and  if 
any  of  them,  from  constitutional  or  accidental  causes, 
be  already  weaker  than  the  rest,  as  often  happens, 
its  health  will  naturally  be  the  first  to  suffer.  In 
this  way,  the  bowels  become  irritated  in  one  indi- 
vidual, and  occasion  bowel  complaint ;  while  in  an- 
other it  is  the  lungs  which  become  affected,  giving 
rise  to  catarrh  or  common  cold,  or  perhaps  even  to 
nflammation.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  all  these 
organs  are  in  a  state  of  vigorous  health,  a  tempo- 
rary increase  of  function  takes  place  in  them,  and 
relieves  the  system,  without  leading  to  any  local 
disorder ;  and  the  skin  itself  speedily  resumes  its 
activity,  and  restores  the  balance  between  them. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  illustrations  of  this  re- 
*  ciprocity  of  action  is  afforded  by  any  convivial  com- 
pany seated  in  a  warm  room  in  a  cold  evening. 
The  heat  of  the  room,  the  food  and  wine,  and  the 
excitement  of  the  moment,  stimulate  the  skin,  cause 
an  afflux  of  blood  to  its  surface,  and  increase  in  a 
high  degree  the  flow  of  the  insensible  perspiration ; 
which  thus,  while  the  heat  continues,  carries  off  an 
undue  share  of  the  fluids  of  the  body,  and  leaves  the 
kidneys  almost  at  rest.  But  the  moment  the  com- 
pany goes  into  the  cold  external  air,  a  sudden  re- 


AND    OTHER    ORGANS.  43 

version  of  operations  takes  place ;  the  cold  chills 
the  surface,  stops  the  perspiration,  and  directs  the 
current  of  the  blood  towards  the  internal  organs, 
which  presently  become  excited, — and,  under  this 
excitation,  the  kidneys,  for  example,  will  in  a  few 
minutes  secrete  as  much  of  their  peculiar  fluid  as 
they  did  in  as  many  of  the  preceding  hours.  The 
reverse  of  this,  again,  is  common  in  diseases  ob- 
structing the  secretion  from  the  kidneys ;  for  the 
perspiration  from  the  skin  is  then  altered  in  quan- 
tity and  quality,  and  acquires  much  of  the  peculiar 
smell  of  the  urinary  fluid. 

When  the  lungs  are  the  weak  parts,  and  their 
lining  membrane  is  habitually  relaxed,  accompanied 
by  an  unusual  amount  of  mucous  secretion  from  its 
surface,  cold  applied  to  the  skin  throws  the  mass 
of  the  blood  previously  circulating  there  inward 
upon  the  lungs,  and  increases  that  secretion  to  a 
high  degree.  Were  this  secretion  to  accumulate, 
it  would  soon  fill  up  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  and 
cause  suffocation;  but  to  obviate  this  danger,  the 
Creator  has  so  constituted  the  lungs,  that  any  for- 
eign body  coming  in  contact  with  them  excites  the 
convulsive  effort  called  coughing,  by  which  a  vio- 
lent and  rapid  expiration  takes  place,  with  a  force 
sufficient  to  hurry  the  foreign  body  along  with  it, 
just  as  peas  are  discharged  by  boys  with  much 
force  through  short  tubes  by  a  sudden  effort  of 
blowing.  Thus,  a  check  given  to  perspiration,  by 
diminishing  the  quantity  of  blood  previously  circu- 
lating on  the  surface,  naturally  leads  very  often  to 
increased  expectoration  and  cough,  or,  in  other 
words,  to  common  cold. 

The  lungs  excrete,  as  we  shall  afterward  see,  a 
large  proportion  of  waste  materials  from  the  sys* 
tern  :  and  the  kidneys,  the  liver,  and  the  bowels 
have  in  so  far  a  similar  office.  In  consequence  of 
this  alliance  with  the  skin,  these  parts  are  more  in- 
timately connected  with  each  other  in  healthy  and 


44        RECIPROCAL  ACTION  BETWEEN  THE  SKIN 

diseased  action  than  with  other  organs.  But  it  is  a 
general  law,  that  wherever  an  organ  is  unusually 
delicate,  it  will  be  more  easily  affected  by  any  cause 
of  disease  than  those  which  are  sound.  So  that,  if 
the  nervous  system,  for  example,  be  weaker  than 
other  parts,  a  chill  will  be  more  likely  to  disturb  its 
health  than  that  of  the  lungs,  which  are  supposed  in 
this  instance  to  be  constitutionally  stronger ;  or,  if 
the  muscular  and  fibrous  organizations  be  unusually 
susceptible  of  disturbance,  either  from  previous  ill- 
ness or  from  natural  predisposition,  they  will  be  the 
first  to  suffer,  and  rheumatism  will  ejjsue ;  and  so 
on.  And  hence  the  utility  to  the  physician  of  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  previous  habits  and 
constitutions  $f  his  patients,  and  the  advantage  of 
adapting  the  remedies  to  the  nature  of  the  cause, 
when  it  can  be  discovered,  as  well  as  to  the  disease 
itself.  A  bowel  complaint,  for  instance,  may  arise 
from  over-eating  as  well  as  from  a  check  to  perspi- 
ration ;  but  although  the  thing  to  be  cured  is  the 
same,  the  means  of  cure  ought  obviously  to  be  dif- 
ferent. In  the  one  instance,  an  emetic  or  laxative 
to  carry  off  the  offending  cause,  and  in  the  other  a 
diaphoretic  to  open  the  skin,  will  be  the  most  ra- 
tional and  efficacious  remedies.  Facts  like  this 
well  expose  the  glaring  ignorance  and  effrontery  of 
the  quack,  who  affirms  that  his  one  remedy  will 
cure  every  form  of  disease.  Were  the  public  not 
equally  ignorant  with  himself,  their  credulity  would 
cease  to  afford  to  his  presumption  the  rich  field  in 
which  it  now  revels. 

In  noticing  this  connexion  between  the  suppres- 
sion of  perspiration  and  the  appearance  of  internal 
disease,  I  do  not  mean  to  affirm,  that  the  effect  is 
•produced  by  the  physical  transference  of  the  sup- 
pressed exhalation  to  the  internal  organ.  In  many 
instances,  the  chief  impression  seems  to  be  made 
on  the  nervous  system  ;  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
gives  rise  to  the  resulting  disease  is  often  extremely 


AND    OTHER    ORGANS.  45 

obscure.  Our  knowledge  of  the  animal  functions  is, 
indeed,  still  so  imperfect,  that  we  daily  meet  with 
many  occurrences  of  which  we  can  give  no  expla- 
nation. But  it  is  nevertheless  of  high  utility  to 
make  known  the  fact  that  a  connexion  does  exist 
between  two  orders  of  phenomena,  as  it  calls  atten- 
tion to  their  more  accurate  observation,  and  leads 
to  the  adoption  of  useful  practical  rules,  even  when 
their  mode  of  operation  is  not  understood.  No- 
thing, indeed,  can  be  more  delusive  than  the  rash 
application  of  merely  physical  laws  to  the  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomena  of  living  beings.  Vitality  is 
a  principle  superior  to,  and  in  continual  warfare 
with,  the  laws  which  regulate  the  actions  of  inani- 
mate bodies ;  and  it  is  only  after  life  has  become 
extinct  that  these  laws  regain  the  mastery,  and  lead 
to  the  rapid  decomposition  of  the  animal  machine. 
In  studying  the  functions  of  the  human  body,  there- 
fore, we  must  be  careful  not  to  hurry  to  conclusions, 
before  taking  time  to  examine  tha  influence  of  the 
vital  principle  in  modifying  the  expected  results. 

It  is  in  consequence  of  the  sympathy  and  reci- 
procity of  action  existing  between  the  skin  and  the 
internal  organs,  that  burns  and  even  scalds  of  no 
very  great  extent  prove  fatal,  by  inducing  internal, 
generally  intestinal,  inflammation.  By  disordering 
or  disorganizing  a  large  nervous  and  exhaling  sur- 
face, an  extensive  burn  causes  not  only  a  violent 
nervous  commotion,  but  a  continued  partial  sus- 
pension of  an  important  excretion ;  and  when  death 
ensues  at  some  distance  of  time,  it  is  almost  always 
in  consequence  of  inflammation  being  excited  in  the 
bowels  or  sympathizing  organ.  So  intimate,  in- 
deed, is  this  connexion,  that  some  surgeons  of  great 
experience,  such  as  Baron  Dupuytren  of  the  Hotel 
Dieu,  while  they  point  to  internal  inflammation  as 
in  such  cases  the  general  cause  of  death,  doubt 
whether  recovery  ever  takes  place,  when  more  than 
one -eighth  of  the  surface  of  the  body  is  severely 


46      THE  SKIN  A  REGULATOR  OF  ANIMAL  HEAT. 

burnt ;  and  whether  this  estimate  be  correc*  or  not 
the  facts  from  which  it  is  drawn  clearly  demon- 
strate the  importance  of  the  relation  subsisting  be- 
tween the  skin  and  the  other  excreting  organs. 

In  some  constitutions,  a  singular  enough  sym- 
pathy subsists  between  the  skin  and  the  bowels. 
Dr.  A.  T.  Thomson,  in  his  work  on  Materia  Medica 
(p.  42),  mentions,  that  he  is  acquainted  with  a  cler- 
gyman who  cannot  bear  the  skin  to  be  sponged  with 
vinegar  and  water,  or  any  diluted  acid,  without  suf- 
fering spasm  and  violent  griping  of  the  bowels. 
The  reverse  operation  of  this  sympathy  is  exem- 
plified in  the  frequent  production  of  nettle-rush  and 
other  eruptions  on  the  skin,  by  shell-fish  and  other 
substances  taken  into  the  stomach.  Dr.  Thomson 
tells  us,  that  the  late  Dr.  Gregory  could  not  eat  the 
smallest  portion  of  the  white  of  an  egg,  without  ex- 
periencing an  attack  of  an  eruption  like  nettle-rush. 
According  to  the  same  author,  even  strawberries 
have  been  known  to  cause  fainting,  followed  by  a 
petechial  efflorescence  of  the  skin. 

We  have  seen  that  the  insensible  perspiration  re- 
moves from  the  system,  without  trouble  and  without 
consciousness,  a  large  quantity  of  useless  materials, 
and  at  the  same  time  keeps  the  skin  soft  and  moist, 
and  thereby  fits  it  for  the  performance  of  its  func- 
tions as  the  organ  of  an  external  sense.  In  addition  to 
these  purposes,  the  Creator  has,  in  his  omniscience 
and  foresight,  and  with  that  regard  to  simplicity 
of  means  which  betokens  a  profoundness  of  thought 
inconceivable  to  us,  superadded  another  purpose 
scarcely  less  important,  and  which  is  in  some  degree 
implied  in  the  former ;  I  mean  the  proper  regulation 
of  the  bodily  herat.  It  is  well  known,  that  in  the 
polar  regions  and  in  the  torrid  zone,  under  every 
variety  of  circumstances,  the  human  body  retains 
nearly  the  same  temperature,  however  different  that 
of  the  air  may  be  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  This 
\&  a  property  peculiar  to  life,  and,  in  consequence  of 


THE  SKIN  A  REGULATOR  OF  ANIMAL  HEAT.      47 

it,  even  vegetables  have  a  power  of  modifying  their 
own  temperature,  though  in  a  much  more  limited 
degree.  Without  this  power  of  adaptation,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  man  must  have  been  chained  for  life  to 
the  climate  which  gave  him  birth,  and  even  then 
have  suffered  constantly  from  the  change  of  sea- 
sons ;  whereas,  by  possessing  it,  he  can  enjoy  life 
in  a  temperature  sufficiently  cold  to  freeze  mercury, 
and  is  able,  for  a  time,  to  sustain,  unharmed,  a  heat 
more  than  sufficient  to  boil  water,  or  even  to  bake 
meat.  Witness  the  wintering  of  Captain  Parry  and 
his  companions  in  the  Polar  Regions ;  and  the  ex- 
periments of  Blagden,  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  and  others, 
who  remained  for  many  minutes  in  a  room  heated 
to  260°,  or  about  50°  above  the  temperature  of  boil- 
ing water.  The  chief  agents  in  this  wonderful 
adaptation  of  man  to  his  external  situation  are  un- 
doubtedly the  skin  and  the  lungs,  and  in  both  the 
power  is  intimately  connected  with  the  condition  of 
their  respective  exhalations :  but  it  is  of  the  skin 
alone,  as  an  agent  in  reducing  animal  heat,  that  we 
have  at  present  to  speak. 

The  sources  of  animal  heat  are  not  yet  demon- 
strably  ascertained ;  but  that  it  is  constantly  gene- 
rated and  constantly  expended  has  been  lon£  known ; 
and  if  any  considerable  disproportion  occurs  be- 
tween these  processes,  it  is  at  the  immediate  risk  of 
health.  During  repose,  or  passive  exercise,  the  sur- 
plus heat  is  readily  carried  off  by  the  insensible  per- 
spiration from  the  lungs  and  skin,  and  by  the  contact 
of  the  colder  air ;  but  when  the  amount  of  heat 
generated  is  increased,  as  during  active  exercise,  an 
increased  expenditure  becomes  immediately  neces- 
sary :  this  is  effected  by  the  skin  and  lungs  being 
excited  to  higher  action ;  by  the  latter  sending  out 
the  respired  air  loaded  with  vapour,  and  the  former 
exhaling  its  fluid  so  rapidly  as  to  form  sweat.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  find  that  in  cold  countries,  and  in  frosty 
weather,  the  superabundant  heat  being  rapidly  car* 


48      THE  SKIN  A  REGtILAtOR  OF  ANIMAL  KEAt. 

ried  off  by  contact  with  a  cooler  air,  the  exhalation 
from  the  skin  is  reduced  to  a  very  moderate  amount 
and  that,  in  warm  climates,  where  the  heat  is  not 
carried  off  in  this  way,  the  surface  is  constantly  be- 
dewed with  perspiration,  and  a  corresponding-  appe- 
tite exists  for  liquids  by  which  the  perspiration  may 
be  kept  up  to  a  sufficient  degree.  Every  one  must 
have  experienced  the  grateful  effects  of  this  pro 
vision,  in  passing  from  the  dry,  restless,  and  burn 
ing  heat,  like  that  of  fever,  to  the  soft  and  pleasant 
coolness  which  follows  the  breaking  out  of  the 
sweat. 

Attention  to  the  order  of  events  affords  the  requi* 
site  knowledge  of  the  means  employed  for  carrying 
off  the  increased  heat  which  is  produced,  when  a 
person  is  exposed  to  a  warm  air  and  powerful  sun, 
or  engaged  in  severe  exercise.  At  first  the  body  is 
actually  felt  to  be  warmer,  the  skin  becomes  dry  and 
hot,  and  the  unpleasant  sensation  of  heat  is  soon  at 
its  maximum.  By-and-by,  a  slight  moisture  is  per- 
ceived on  the  surface,  followed  by  an  immediate  in- 
crease of  comfort.  In  a  short  time  afterward,  this 
moisture  passes  into  free  and  copious  perspiration ; 
and  if  the  heat  or  exertion  be  still  kept  up,  the  sweat 
becomes  profuse,  and  drops  from  the  body,  or  wets 
the  clothes  which  envelop  it.  A  decrease  of  ani- 
mal heat  unavoidably  accompanies  this,  because, 
independently  of  any  vital  action  contributing  to 
this  effect,  as  is  most  probable,  the  mere  physical 
evaporation  of  so  much  fluid  is  itself  sufficient  to 
carry  off  a  large  quantity  of  caloric.  The  curious 
experiments  of  Edwards  tend  to  show  that  evapora- 
tion is  really  the  only  means  required  for  reducing 
animal  heat  to  its  proper  degree ;  but  the  results 
obtained  by  him  require  to  be  confirmed,  and^  the 
experiments  varied  and  carried  farther,  before*  the 
inquiry  can  be  considered  as  completed.  The  saga- 
city of  Franklin  led  him  to  the  first  discovery  of  the 
use  of  perspiration  in  reducing  the  heat  of  the  body, 


THE  SKIN  A  REGULATOR  OF  ANIMAL  HEAT.       49 

and  to  point  out  the  analogy  subsisting  between  this 
process  and  that  of  the  evaporation  of  water  from 
a  rough  porous  surface,  so  constantly  resorted  to  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  other  warm  countries, 
as  an  efficacious  means  of  reducing  the  temperature 
of  the  air  in  rooms,  and  of  wine  and  other  drinks, 
much  below  that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
The  quantity  of  fluid  evaporated  from  the  skin  during 
profuse  sweat  so  far  exceeds  that  given  out  during 
the  highest  insensible  perspiration,  that  two  pounds 
in  weight  have  been  lost  by  this  means  in  a  couple 
of  hours, — an  amount  evidently  sufficient  to  carry 
off  the  largest  quantity  of  superfluous  animal  heat 
which  can  ever  be  present.  In  the  performance  of 
this  function  the  skin  is,  indeed,  assisted  by  the  ex- 
halation from  the  lungs ;  but  as  both  act  on  the  same 
principle,  the  explanation  is  not  affected  by  this  cir- 
cumstance. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  preceding  explanation  of  the 
functions  of  the  skin,  the  following  remarks  from 
Dr.  Thomson's  work*  will  be  read  with  interest. 
u  Dr.  Davy,  in  his  Travels  in  Ceylon,  states,  from 
his  personal  observation,  that,  on  first  landing  in  a 
tropical  climate,  the  standRrd  heat  of  the  body  of  a 
European  is  raised  two  or  three  degrees,  and  febrile 
symptoms  occur,  which  require  temperance,  the 
avoiding  every  cause  of  excitement  of  the  vascular 
system,  and  the  use  of  aperient  medicines.  All  au- 
thors, and  indeed  every  observing  person  who  has 
visited  the  torrid  zone,  agree  that  with  the  languor  and 
exhaustion  resulting  from  the  high  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere,  there  is  a  greatly  increased  mobility 
of  the  nervous  system.  The  action  of  the  cutaneous 
vessels  amounts  to  disease,  and  produces  that  ecze- 
tnatous  or  vesicular  eruption  of  the  skin,  known 
by  the  name  of  prickly  heat,  which  occurs  in  Eu- 
ropeans who  visit  the  West  Indies,  on  their  first 

*  Page6& 
E 


60   THE  SKIN  A  REGULATOR  0?  A&IMAL 

landing.  On  the  other  hand,  this  function  of  the 
skin  is  so  much  weakened,  almost  paralyzed,  when 
the  climate  frbm  which  a  person  is  passing  is  dry 
and  bracing,  and  that  into  which  he  has  passed  is 
humid  and  relaxing,  that  congestions  of  blood  take 
place  in  the  larger  vessels,  the  body  becomes  sus- 
ceptible of  the  least  impression  of  marshy  exhala- 
tions, and  agues  and  similar  diseases  are  produced.'1 
We  shall  now  be  able  to  understand  why  in 
ummer  we  suffer  most  from  heat  in  what  is  called 
moist  close  weather,  when  no  air  is  stirring ;  and 
why  warm  climates,  which  are  at  the  same  time 
moist,  are  proverbially  the  most  unwholesome. 
The  chief  reason  is  the  diminished  evaporation  from 
the  skin  which  such  a  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
produces,  partially  shutting  up  the  natural  outlet  of 
the  superfluous  heat  of  the  body  ;  and  as  it  at  the 
same  time  checks  the  exit  of  the  waste  matter 
which  ought  to  be  thrown  out,  and  which  is  known 
to  be  as  injurious  to  the  system  as  an  active  poison 
taken  into  the  body  from  without,  the  hurtful  con- 
sequences of  such  weather  and  climates,  and  the 
fevers,  dysenteries,  and  colds  to  which  they  give 
rise,  are  partly  accounted  for.  This  is  one  powerful 
reason  why  night  air  is  so  unwholesome,  particularly 
in  malaria  districts,  which  are  loaded  with  moisture 
and  miasma ;  for,  when  the  air  is  dry  as  well  as  hot, 
and  free  evaporation  takes  place,  little  or  no  in- 
convenience is  felt,  and  health  oftener  remains  un- 
injured. Delaroche  has  established  this  point  con- 
clusively  by  experiment.  He  exposed  animals  to  a 
very  high  temperature  in  a  dry  air,  and  found  them 
to  sustain  no  mischief ;  but  when  he  exposed  them 
in  an  atmosphere  saturated  with  moisture,  to  a  heat 
only  a  few  degrees  above  that  of  their  own  bodies, 
and  greatly  lower  than  in  the  former  instance,  they 
very  soon  died.  Here  we  see  the  reason  also  why, 
ii  ague  and  other  fevers,  the  suffering,  restlessness,, 
and  excitement  of  the  hot  stage  can  never  be  abated 


CUTANEOUS    ABSORPTION.  51 

till  the  sweat  begins  to  flow,  after  which  they  rapidly 
subside  ;  and  why  the  remedies  which,  given  in  the 
hot  stage,  added  to  the  excitement  and  distress,  may 
now  be  productive  of  the  best  effects. 

The  function  next  to  be  noticed,  viz.  Absorption,  is, 
in  some  measure,  the  opposite  of  the  last.  By  its 
instrumentality,  substances  placed  in  contact  with 
the  skin  are  taken  up  and  carried  into  the  general  cir- 
culation, either  to  be  appropriated  to  some  new  pur- 
pose, or  to  be  subsequently  thrown  out  of  the  body. 

In  the  vaccination  of  children  to  protect  them 
from  small-pox,  we  have  a  familiar  example  of  the 
process  of  absorption.  A  small  quantity  of  cow- 
pox  matter  is  inserted  under  the  cuticle  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  true  skin,  and  there  left.  In  a  short 
time  it  is  acted  upon,  and  taken  into  the  system,  by 
the  absorbent  vessels.  In  like  manner,  mercurial 
preparations  rubbed  on  the  skin  for  the  cure  of  liver 
complaint  are  absorbed,  and  affect  the  constitution 
precisely  as  when  received  into  the  stomach.  Many 
even  of  the  common  laxatives,  such  as  rhubarb  and 
croton  oil,  have  of  late  been  successfully  adminis 
tered  in  the  same  way,  and  the  rapid  absorption  of 
poisons  from  bites  of  rabid  animals  and  wounds  in 
dissection  through  the  same  channel,  is  familiar  to 
every  one.  It  is  from  the  active  principle  of  the 
Spanish  flies  used  in  blisters  being  taken  up  by  the 
cutaneous  absorbents,  that  irritation  of  the  kidneys 
and  urinary  organs  so  often  attends  the  employment 
of  that  remedy. 

The  process  of  absorption  is  carried  on  by  vessels 
fitted  for  the  purpose,  which  are  thence  named 
absorbent  vessels,  or  simply  absorbents.  In  the  skin 
they  are  so  exceedingly  small  and  numerous,  that 
when  injected  with  mercury  the  surface  is  said  by 
Dr.  Gordon  to  resemble  a  sheet  of  silver.  In  health 
they  are  of  too  small  a  size  to  admit  the  red  parti- 
cles  of  the  blood,  and  fyence,  from  their  contents 


52  CUTANEOUS    ABSORPTION. 

being  nearly  transparent,  they  are  sometimes  named 
ymphatics. 

Some  ascribe  great,  and  others  very  little,  import- 
ance to  cutaneous  absorption.  In  some  diseases, 
as  in  diabetes,  in  which,  occasionally  for  weeks  in 
succession,  the  urinary  discharge  exceeds,  by  many 
ounces  daily,  the  whole  quantity  of  food  and  drink, 
without  the  body  losing  proportion  ably  in  weight, 
we  can  account  for  the  system  being  sustained  only 
by  supposing  moisture  to  be  extensively  absorbed 
from  the  air  by  the  skin  and  lungs.  The  ancients, 
indeed,  believed  that,  when  food  could  not  be  retained 
in  the  stomach,  a  person  might  be  nourished  by 
placing  him  in  a  bath  of  strong  soup  or  milk  ;  but 
recent  experiments  serve  to  show  that,  in  such 
circumstances,  absorption  is  too  trifling  in  amount 
for  any  such  result.  Some  indeed  deny  that  any 
absorption  would  take  place  at  all,  because  it  is 
observed  as  a  general  fact  that  the  body  does  not 
gain  in  weight  by  immersion  in  a  warm  bath.  But 
the  inference  is  not  well  founded,  for  occasionally 
weight  is  gained  ;  and  even  when  it  is  not,  as  much 
water  must  have  been  absorbed  as  would  make  up 
the  loss  sustained  during  immersion  by  perspiration, 
which  is  believed  to  go  on  more  rapidly  in  warm 
water  than  in  the  open  air. 

That  animals  absorb  copiously  when  immersed  in 
water  has  been  amply  proved  by  Dr.  Edwards  and 
other  physiologists.  Dr.  Edwards  selected  lizards 
as  the  subjects  of  experiment,  because  he  regarded 
heir  scaly  skins  as  unfavourable  for  absorption. 
After  reducing  the  bulk  of  a  lizard  by  several  days' 
exposure  to  a  dry  air,  he  immersed  its  tail  and  hind 
Jegs  in  water,  and  found  that  absorption  took  place 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  restore  the  original  plump- 
ness of  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  same  result  at- 
tended a  variety  of  other  trials,  so  that  the  fact  does 
not  admit  of  doubt.  In  man,  absorption  from  the 
surface  is  greatly  retarded  by  the  intervention  of  the 


CUTANEOUS   ABSORPTION.  53 

euticle  ;  and  it  is  universally  admitted  that  when  this 
obstacle  is  removed,  the  process  goes  on  with  great 
vigour.  Thus  arsenic  applied  to  cancerous  sores, 
and  strong  solutions  of  opium  to  extensive  burns  in 
children,  have  been  absorbed  in  quantities  sufficient 
to  poison  the  patients.  Colic  in  its  severest  forms 
has  followed  similar  external  applications  of  the 
salts  of  lead.  Mercury,  also,  in  the  form  of  fumiga- 
tion, has  often  been  used  where  rapid  action  was 
required,  because  in  the  state  of  vapour  it  is  very 
speedily  taken  up  by  the  cutaneous  absorbents. 

It  is  quite  certain,  then,  that  the  skin  does  absorb. 
The  only  doubt  is  as  to  what  extent  the  cuticle  oper- 
ates in  preventing  or  modifying  that  action.  When 
friction  accompanies  the  external  application,  the 
cuticle,  as  we  see  exemplified  in  the  use  of  mercu- 
rial and  other  liniments,  is  not  an  efficient  obstacle. 
But  when  friction  is  not  resorted  to,  and  the  sub- 
stance applied  is  of  a  mild  unirritating  nature,  such 
as  oil,  it  may  remain  in  contact  with  the  skin  for  a 
long  time  without  being  taken  into  the  system  in 
appreciable  quantities.  If,  however,  it  is  irritating, 
like  Spanish  flies,  absorption  speedily  begins,  and  is 
carried  on  through  the  cuticle,  as  is  proved  by  the 
effects  produced  on  the  urinary  organs. 

When  the  perspiration  is  brought  to  the  surface 
of  the  skin,  and  confined  there  either  by  injudicious 
clothing  or  by  want  of  cleanliness,  there  is  much 
reason  to  suppose  that  its  residual  parts  are  again 
absorbed,  and  act  on  the  system  as  a  poison  of 
greater  or  less  power,  according  to  its  quantity  and 
degree  of  concentration,  thereby  producing  fever, 
inflammation,  and  even  death  itself;  for  it  is  estab- 
lished by  observation,  that  concentrated  animal 
effluvia  form  a  very  energetic  poison.  The  fatal 
consequences  which  have  repeatedly  followed  the 
use  of  a  close  water-proof  dress  by  sportsmen  and 
others,  and  the  heat  and  uneasy  restlessness  which 
£2 


54  CUTANEOUS    ABSORPTION. 

speedily  ensue  where  proper  ventilation  is  thus  pre» 
vented,  seem  explicable  only  on  some  such  principle. 
It  is  believed  by  many,  that  marsh  miasmata  and 
other  poisons  are  absorbed  by  the  skin,  and  Bichat 
considered  the  fact  as  established  in  regard  to  the 
effluvia  of  dissecting-rooms.  There  are  many  rea- 
sons for  concurring  in  this  belief.  The  plague,  for 
instance,  is  known  to  be  much  more  readily  commu- 
nicated by  contact  than  by  any  other  means,  and  this 
can  happen  only  through  the  medium  of  absorption. 
Again,  it  is  certain  that  flannel  and  warm  clothing 
are  extremely  useful  in  preserving  those  who  are 
unavoidably  exposed  to  the  action  of  malaria  and  of 
epidemic  influences ;  and  these  manifestly  act  chiefly 
by  protecting  the  skin.  A  late  writer  on  the  Mala- 
ria of  Rome  strongly  advocates  this  opinion,  and 
expresses  his  conviction  that  the  ancient  Romans 
suffered  less  from  it,  chiefly  because  they  were  al- 
ways enveloped  in  warm  woollen  dresses.  This 
opinion,  he  says,  is  justified  by  the  observation,  that 
since  the  period  at  which  the  use  of  woollen  cloth- 
ing came  again  into  vogue,  intermittent  fevers  have 
very  sensibly  diminished  in  Rome.  Even  in  the 
warmest  weather  the  shepherds  are  now  clothed  in 
sheep-skins.  Brocchi,  who  experimented  exten- 
sively on  the  subject,  obtained  a  notable  quantity  of 
putrid  matter  from  the  unwholesome  air,  and  came 
to  the  conclusion,  that  it  penetrated  by  the  pores  of 
the  skin  rather  than  by  the  lungs.  Brocchi  ascribes 
the  immunity  of  the  sheep  and  cattle,  which  pasture 
night  and  day  in  the  Campagna,  to  the  protection 
afforded  them  by  their  wool.*  These  remarks  de- 
serve the  serious  attention  of  observers, — particu- 
larly as,  according  to  Patissier,  similar  means  have 
been  found  effectual  in  preserving  the  health  of  la- 
bourers digging  and  excavating  drains  and  canals  in 
marshy  grounds,  where,  previous  to  the  employment 

*  Edin,  Phil,  Joum.  January,  1833* 


CUTANEOUS    ABSORPTION.  55 

of  these  precautions,  the  mortality  from  fever  was 
very  considerable. 

It  is  a  general  law,  that  every  organ  acts  with  in- 
creased energy  when  excited  by  its  own  stimulus ; 
and  the  application  of  this  law  to  the  different  func- 
tions of  the  skin  may  help  to  remove  some  of  our 
difficulties.  The  skin  exhales  most  in  a  warm  dry 
atmosphere,  because  the  latter  dissolves  and  carries 
off  the  secretion  as  fast  as  it  is  produced;  and  the 
same  condition  is  unfavourable  to  absorption,  be- 
cause nothing  is  present  upon  which  the  absorbents 
of  the  skin  can  act.  In  a  moist  atmosphere,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  absorbents  meet  with  their  appropri- 
ate stimulus,  and  act  powerfully;  while  exhalation 
is  greatly  diminished,  because  the  air  can  no  longer 
carry  off  the  perspiration  so  freely.  Apparently 
from  this  extensive  absorption,  we  find  the  inhabit- 
ants of  marshy  and  humid  districts  remarkable  for 
the  predominance  of  the  lymphatic  system,  as  has 
long  been  remarked  of  the  Dutch ;  and  as  malaria 
prevails  chiefly  in  situations  and  seasons  in  which 
the  air  is  loaded  with  moisture,  and  is  most  energetic 
at  periods  when  absorption  is  most  active  and  moist- 
sure  is  at  its  maximum,  the  probability  of  its  being 
'received  into  the  system  chiefly  by  cutaneous  ab- 
sorption is  greatly  increased,  and  the  propriety  of 
endeavouring  to  protect  ourselves  from  its  influence 
by  warm  woollen  clothing  becomes  more  striking. 
In  the  army  and  navy,  accordingly,  where  practical 
experience  is  most  followed,  the  utmost  attention  is 
now  paid  to  enforcing  the  use  of  flannel  and  suffi- 
cient clothing,  as  a  protection  against  fever,  dysen- 
tery, and  other  diseases,  particularly  in  unhealthy 
climates.  In  the  prevention  of  cholera,  flannel  was 
decidedly  useful. 

From  grouping  all  the  constituent  parts  of  the  skin 
into  one  whole,  and  perceiving  so  many  operations 
connected  with  that  tegument,  some  may  be  apt  to 


56  TOUCH   AND    SENSATION* 

suppose  it  an  exception  to  the  principle  laid  down, 
that  no  single  part  can  execute  more  than  a  single 
direct  function.  In  reality,  however,  it  is  only  by 
taking  the  guidance  of  this  principle  that  we  can  ex- 
tricate ourselves  from  the  apparent  confusion.  We 
have  already  seen  that  exhalation,  and  the  regulation 
of  heat  and  absorption,  are  each  connected  with  dis- 
tinct textures  in  the  skin.  On  further  examination, 
we  shall  find  the  office  of  Touch  and  Sensation  in- 
trusted exclusively  to  another  constituent  part,  the 
nervous;  for,  in  serving  as  the  instrument  of.feeling, 
the  skin  acts  in  no  other  way  than  by  affording  a 
suitable  surface  for  the  distribution  and  protection 
of  the  nerves  which  receive  and  transmit  to  the 
brain  and  mind  the  impressions  made  on  them  by 
external  bodies.  In  this  respect  the  skin  resembles 
the  other  organs  of  sense ;  in  all  of  which  the  nerve 
is  the  true  instrument  of  the  sense,  and  the  eye,  the 
ear,  the  nose,  and  the  skin  are  simply  structures  fitted 
to  bring  the  nerve  into  relation  with  the  qualities  of 
colour,  sound,  smell,  roughness,  or  smoothness,  by 
which  they  are  respectively  affected ; — and  they 
differ  from  each  other,  because  sound  differs  from 
colour,  colour  from  smell,  and  smell  from  roughness 
or  smoothness  ;  and  because  sound  or  colour  can  be 
taken  cognizance  of  by  its  own  nerve  only  when 
the  latter  is  provided  with  an  apparatus  fit  to  be 
acted  upon  by  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  or  by  the 
rays  of  light.  In  every  instance,  it  is  the  external 
object  acting  upon  a  nerve  which  gives  rise  to  the 
mpression  received  from  the  organs  of  sense. 

Every  part  of  the  skin,  however  remote,  is  pro- 
vided with  filaments  from  the  nerves  of  sensation, 
in  order  that  we  may  become  immediately  sensible 
of  the  presence  and  action  of  external  bodies.  If 
any  part  were  destitute  of  this  property,  its  texture 
and  vitality  might  be  destroyed  without  our  con- 
sciousness of  the  fact ;  whereas,  in  consequence  of 
this  provision  of  sensitive  nerves,  no  object  can 


i 


TOUCH   AND    SENSATION.  57 

touch  the  skin  without  our  being  instantly  made 
aware  of  its  presence  and  properties. 

While,  however,  sensation  is  common  to  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body,  there  are  parts  of  the 
skin  more  immediately  destined  by  Nature  for  the 
exercise  of  Touch,  and  for  the  better  appreciation 
of  all  the  qualities  of  which  it  is  cognizant.  Such 
are  the  hands  and  tongue  in  man,  the  proboscis  in 
the  elephant,  the  tail  in  some  of  the  monkey  tribe, 
and  the  tenticula  in  fishes.  Now,  in  accordance 
with  the  explanation  given  of  the  dependence  of 
sensation  upon  nervous  endowment,  it  is  remark- 
able that  all  the  parts  destined  for  this  special  ex- 
ercise of  Touch  receive  the  most  abundant  sup- 
ply of  sensitive  nerves.  Thus  the  nerves  going  to 
the  hand  and  arm,  the  most  perfect  instruments  of 
Touch  and  Sensation  in  man,  are  at  their  dorsal 
roots  five  times  larger  than  those  which  are  destined 
for  its  motion;  and,  in  like  manner,  the  nerve  sup- 
plying the  tactile  extremity  of  the  proboscis  of  the 
elephant  exceeds  in  size  the  united  volume  of  all 
its  muscular  nerves.  On  the  other  hand,  in  animals 
covered  with  hair  or  feathers,  whose  Touch  and 
Sensation  are  comparatively  defective,  the  muscular 
nerves  far  exceed  in  size  those  of  Sensation ;  and 
wherever  Nature  has  endowed  any  particular  part 
with  high  sensitive  powers,  she  is  invariably  found 
to  have  distributed  to  that  part,  and  to  it  alone,  a 
proportionally  higher  nervous  endowment.  In  man, 
the  innumerable  nervous  papillae  destined  for  the 
exercise  of  Touch  may  be  distinctly  seen  in  parallel 
irregular  rows  on  the  fingers  and  palm  of  the  hand, 
and  everybody  knows  how  acute  the  sense  is  in 
these  parts.  In  fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  no  nervous 
papillae  can  be  detected  on  the  surface  of  the  skin; 
but  many  of  them  have  tentacula  or  projections 
generally  about  the  mouth,  for  the  special  purpose 
of  exercising  Touch,  and  these  are  always  plentifully 
supplied  with  branches  from  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves. 


68  TOUCH   AND   SENSATION. 

The  nervous  tissue  of  the  skin  is  thus  not  only  an 
important  instrument  for  receiving  and  conveying 
to  the  mind  accurate  impressions  in  regard  to  tin 
properties  of  external  objects,  but  it  is  even  essen- 
tial to  our  continued  existence.  The  pain  which  is 
caused  by  injuries  is  no  doubt  very  disagreeable,  but 
in  its  uses  it  is  a  positive  blessing,  in  warning  us 
against  the  danger,  and  even  certain  destruction 
which  would  speedily  overtake  us  if  we  had  no  such 
monitor  at  hand.  If  we  had  no  nerves  on  the  sur 
face  to  communicate  to  us  a  lively  impression  of 
cold,  we  might  inadvertently  remain  inactive  in  a 
temperature  which  would  not  only  suspend  perspira- 
tion, but  benumb  the  powers  of  life ;  or  we  might, 
on  the  other  hand,  approach  so  near  the  fire  or  boil- 
ing fluids  as  to  have  the  organization  destroyed  be- 
fore we  knew :  whereas,  by  the  kind  interposition 
of  the  nerves,  we  cannot,  when  perspiring  freely,  be 
exposed  to  the  cold  air  without  an  unpleasant  sen- 
sation being  experienced,  impelling  us  to  attend  to 
our  safety,  and  to  keep  up  our  heat  either  by  addi- 
tional clothing  or  by  active  exercise.  When  the 
nervous  and  vascular  parts  of  the  skin  are  both  in 
healthy  action,  a  pleasant  soft  warmth  is  felt  over 
the  body,  which  is  in  itself  a  delight,  and  which  gives 
to  the  mind  a  lightness  and  hilarity,  or  pleasant  con^ 
pciousness  of  active  existence,  the  very  opposite  of 
the  low  arid  languid  depression  which  so  generally 
accompanies  continued  defective  action  in  the  skin, 
and  which  forms  a  marked  feature  in  many  nervous 
Affections. 

For  the  due  exercise  of  Sensation,  the  nerves 
must  be  in  a  proper  state  of  health.  If,  for  example, 
the  cuticle  protecting  the  nervous  papillae  be  abraded, 
or  removed  by  vesication,  the  naked  nerves  are  too 
powerfully  stimulated  by  the  contact  of  external 
bodies,  and  instead  of  receiving  and  transmitting  the 
usual  impressions  of  heat,  cold,  figure,  and  hardness 
they  conjmunicate  scarcely  any  feeling  except  that 


AND    SSNSAflOtt,  &9 

Bfjiain;  while,  if  the  cuticle  become  thickened  by 
hard  labour,  the  impression  made  on  the  nerves  is 
proportionally  lessened,  and  little  information  is  con- 
veyed by  them  to  the  mind. 

A  due  supply  of  arterial  blood  is  another  requi- 
site for  tne  action  of  the  nerves  of  sensation.  If 
they  be  deprived  of  this,  as  by  exposing  the  body  to 
a  degree  of  cold  sufficient  to  drive  the  blood  from 
the  surface,  the  nerves  become  almost  insensible, 
and  severe  wounds  may  be  received  in  this  state 
without  thd  individual  being  conscious  of  the  acci- 
dent, or  feeling  the  slightest  pain.  For  the  same 
reason,  severe  cold,  after  a  certain  time,  ceases  to 
be  painful,  and  death  ensues  like  deep  sleep  and 
without  suffering.  But  when  a  frozen  limb  is  thawed, 
and  the  returning  circulation  begins  to  set  the  nerves 
in  action,  then  suffering  commences,  and  the  over- 
action  is  in  danger  of  leading  to  inflammation.  The 
same  phenomena,  in  an  inferior  degree,  must  be  fa- 
miliar to  every  one,  in  the  prickling  and  tingling  so 
commonly  complained  of  on  heating  cold  hands  or 
feet  too  rapidly  at  a  good  fire,  and  which  arise  from 
the  return  of  the  blood  stimulating  the  nerves  to 
undue  action. 

It  is  the  nervous  tissue  of  the  skin  which  takes 
cognizance  of  the  temperature  of  the  bodies  by 
which  we  are  surrounded,  and  imparts  to  the  mind 
the  sensation  of  warmth  or  coldness.  In  the  healthy 
state,  the  sensation  is  a  correct  index  of  the  real 
temperature ;  but,  in  disease,  we  often  complain  of 
fold  and  shivering  when  the  skin  is  positively 
warmer  than  natural.  In  this  way,  those  whose  di- 
gestion is  weak,  and  whose  circulation  is  feeble, 
complain  habitually  of  cold,  and  of  cold  feet,  where 
others,  differently  constituted,  experience  no  such 
sensations.  Exercise  dissipates  this  feeling  and  in- 
creases heat,  by  exciting  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
throwing  more  of  it  to  the  surface,  and  thereby 


60  TOUCH   AND    SENSATION* 

increasing  the  action  of  the  cutaneous  vessels  and 
nerves. 

Some  mental  emotions  operate  upon  the  skin,  and 
impair  its  functions  much  in  the  same  way  as  cold. 
Grief,  fear,  and  the  depressing  passions,  by  dimin- 
ishing the  afflux  of  arterial  blood,  render  the  skin 
pale,  and  at  the  same  time  diminish  perspiration  and 
nervous  action ;  while  rage,  and  other  violent  pas- 
sions, by  augmenting  the  afflux  of  blood,  elevate  the 
temperature  of  the  skin,  and  give  rise  to  the  red 
flush,  fulness,  and  tension  so  characteristic  of  ex- 
citement. Facts  like  these  establish  a  connexion 
between  the  brain  and  the  nervous  system  and  the 
skin,  which  it  is  important  not  to  overlook.  The 
brain  is  readily  admitted,  by  reflecting  minds,  to  ex- 
ercise much  influence  on  the  general  system,  be- 
cause the  nervous  substance  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed is  collected  into  one  focus,  and,  thus  united, 
is  seen  to  constitute  a  large  mass.  In  reality,  how- 
ever, the  nervous  matter,  spread  out  on  the  surface 
of  the  body  for  the  purposes  of  sensation,  is  so  great 
that  many  anatomists  consider  it  as  even  exceeding 
the  mass  of  the  brain,  and  hence  its  reverse  influence 
might  be  expected  to  be,  as  it  actually  is,  of  much  im- 
portance to  health. 

We  see  this  exemplified  on  exposure  to  intense 
cold.  The  first  sensation  of  chill  on  the  nervous- 
surface  of  the  skin  is  speedily  succeeded  by  that  of 
numbness  and  insensibility.  The  impression  is 
thence  communicated  to  the  brain,  which  in  its  turn 
becomes  affected,  as  is  shown  first  by  confusion  of 
mind,  as  noticed  by  Captain  Parry,  and  afterward 
by  the  total  suspension  of  the  mental  powers,  and 
the  extinction  of  life  itself.  When,  on  the  other 
nand,  as  in  tropical  climates,  the  surface  is  relaxed 
by  excessive  heat,  the  brain  speedily  participates  iit 
ihe  relaxation,  and  the  mind  is  unfitted  for  sustained 
or  vigorous  action. 

Invalids  and  literary  men  often  suffer   severely 


i 


FOLLICLES  OF  THE  SKIS.  61 

from  excess  of  action  in  the  brain,  and  deficiency  of 
activity  in  the  nerves  of  the  skin  and  remoter  or- 
gans. The  nervous  stimulus,  which  is  essential  to 
digestion  and  to  the  health  and  warmth  of  the  skin, 
cannot  be  provided  when  the  brain  is  too  exclusively 
exercised  in  thinking  or  feeling ;  and  for  want  of  this 
stimulus,  the  tone  of  the  digestive  and  cutaneous  or* 
gans  is  greatly  reduced, — the  surface  of  the  body 
becomes  cold,  shrunk,  and  uncomfortable,  and  the 
individual  subject  to  annoyance  and  painful  sensa- 
tions from  trifles  which  formerly  gave  pleasure. 
Bad  digestion  and  deficient  warmth  of  surface  are 
thus  proverbially  complained  of  among  literary  and 
sedentary  persons,  and  can  be  removed  only  by  ex- 
citing the  nervous  and  vascular  functions  of  the  skin, 
and  diminishing  those  of  the  brain. 

Such  are  the  direct  and  important  uses  of  the 
skin.  But  in  addition  to  the  parts  already  noticed, 
there  are  numerous  small  follicles  contained  in  its 
substance,  more  abundant  where  hairs  are  implanted, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  orifices  of  natural  canals, 
than  in  other  regions,  but  existing  in  all  parts  ex- 
cept the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  a  millet  seed,  and  the 
skin  which  contains  them  is  thin,  reflected  on  itself, 
and  very  vascular.  Their  cavities  are  filled  with 
an  oily  humour  susceptible  of  concretion  and  con- 
sistence, and  each  opens  by  an  orifice  at  the  external 
surface  of  the  skin.  It  is  this  oily  matter  which 
prevents  water  from  penetrating  easily  and  relaxing 
the  cuticle,  and  the-  absence  of  which,  when  it  has 
been  removed  by  the  soda  used  in  washing,  allows 
the  skin  of  the  hands  and  fingers  to  assume  that 
wrinkled  and  shrivelled  appearance  which  is  com- 
mon among  washerwomen. 
F* 


MORTALITY    IN   INFANCY    FROM    COLD. 


CHAPTER  III. 

lortality  in  Infancy  from  Cold — Animal  Heat  lowest  at  tha 
Age — Too  little  and  too  much  Clothing  equally  bad — Rules 
for  Dress — Advantages  of  Flannel,  exemplified  in  H.  M.  S. 
Valorous — Ventilation  of  Beds  and  Clothing — Influence  of 
Light — Importance  of  Ablution  and  Bathing — Cold,  Tepid, 
and  Warm  Bath — Sponging  with  diluted  Vinegar — Friction 
of  the  Skin — Vapour-bath  and  Warm  Bath  useful  in  prevent- 
ing and  curing  Nervous  Diseases  and  Liability  to  Cold — Sail- 
ing and  Riding  useful  by  acting  on  the  Skin. 

As  it  is  only  in  its  useful  applications  to  the  im- 
provement and  happiness  of  man  that  knowledge 
truly  becomes  power,  we  proceed,  in  accordance 
with  this  principle,  to  point  out  some  of  the  advan- 
tages derivable  from  that  which  we  have  attempted 
to  communicate. 

It  appears  from  the  London  Bills  of  Mortality, 
that  between  a  fourth  and  a  fifth  of  all  the  infants 
baptized  die  within  the  first  two  years  of  their  ex- 
istence. This  extraordinary  result  is  not  a  part  of 
the  Creator's  designs  ;  it  does  not  occur  in  the 
lower  animals,  and  must  therefore  have  causes 
capable  of  removal.  One  of  these,  to  speak  only 
of  what  is  related  to  the  present  inquiry,  is  unques- 
tionably the  inadequate  protection  afforded,  espe- 
cially among  the  poorer  classes,  to  the  new-born  in- 
fant, against  the  effects  of  the  great  and  sudden 
transition  which  it  makes  in  passing  at  once  from 
a  high  and  almost  unvarying  temperature  in  the 
mother's  womb,  to  one  greatly  inferior  and  con- 
stantly liable  to  change.  At  birth,  the  skin  is  deli- 
cate, extremely  vascular,  and  highly  susceptible  of 
impressions  ;  so  much  so,  that  cases  have  occurred 


ANIMAL    HEAT    LOWEST    IN    INFANCY.  63 

in  which  a  leech-bite  has  caused  a  fatal  hemorrhage. 
The  circulation  is,  in  fact,  cutaneous  ;  for  the  lungs, 
the  stomach,  the  liver,  and  the  kidneys  are  as  yet 
new  to  life,  and  feeble  in  their  functions.  If  the 
infant,  then,  be  rashly  exposed  to  a  cold  atmosphere, 
the  mass  of  blood  previously  circulating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  is  immediately  driven  inwards  by 
the  contraction  of  the  cutaneous  vessels,  and,  by 
over-stimulating  the  internal  organs,  gives  rise  to 
bowel  complaints,  inflammations,  croup,  or  convul- 
sions, which  sooner  or  later  extinguish  life.  This 
shows  the  inexpressible  folly  of  those  who  bathe 
infants  daily  in  cold  water  even  in  winter,  and  freely 
expose  them  to  the  open  air,  or  to  currents  from 
open  doors  or  windows,  with  a  view  to  harden 
their  constitutions  ;  when  it  is  quite  certain  that  no 
more  effectual  means  could  be  resorted  to  in  the 
earlier  months  of  life  to  undermine  the  general 
health  and  entail  future  disease  on  the  unhappy 
subjects  of  the  experiment. 

This  hurtful  practice  has  perhaps  arisen  in  some 
degree  from  the  prevalent  error  of  supposing  that 
infants  have  naturally  a  great  power  of  generating 
heat  and  resisting  cold.  That  the  very  opposite  is 
the  fact  has  been  established  by  the  experiments 
of  Dr.  Milne  Edwards,  which  show  that  "  the  power 
of  producing  heat  in  warm-blooded  animals  is  at  its 
minimum  at  birth,  and  increases  successively  to  adult 
age"  and  that  instead  of  young  animals  being  warmer 
than  adults,  they  are  generally  a  degree  or  two 
older,  and  part  with  their  heat  more  readily.  In 
en  healthy  infants,  from  a  few  days  to  two  hours 
old,  the  mean  temperature  was  observed  by  Dr. 
Edwards  to  be  only  94°. 55  Fahr.,  that  of  adults  be- 
ing 97°  or  98°  ;  and  in  a  seven  months1  child,  three 
hours  after  birth,  he  found  the  temperature  so  low 
as  89°. 6,  although  the  child  was  well  clothed  and 
near  a  good  fire.  That  exposure  to  cold  is  really 
so  injurious  in  infancy  is  unhappily  proved  by  a 


64       TOO    LITTLE    AND    TOO    MUCH    CLOTHING. 

multitude  of  facts.  In  France,  as  already  alluded 
to  in  the  first  chapter,  it  is  the  custom  to  carry  every 
infant,  soon  after  birth,  to  the  office  of  the  maire 
that  its  birth  may  be  registered.  Suspecting  that 
the  exposure  consequent  upon  such  a  practice  must 
l>e  pernicious  to  health,  especially  in  winter,  and 
where  the  distance  is  great,  Dr.  Edwards  made  in- 
quiry, and  on  consulting  the  returns  made  to  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  found  that  the  proportion 
of  deaths  within  a  very  limited  period  after  birth 
was  much  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and  in 
the  northern  than  in  the  southern  departments  ;  and 
on  further  inquiry  he  discovered  that  the  mortality 
was  greater  in  parishes  where  the  inhabitants  were 
scattered  at  a  distance  from  the  maire,  than  where 
they  were  congregated  near  him  ;  so  that  the  num- 
ber of  deaths  in  infancy  seemed  to  be  influenced  by 
the  degree  and  duration  of  the  exposure  to  the  cold 
air.  What  more  striking  proof  than  this  can  be  re- 
quired of  the  evils  arising  from  the  ignorance  of  our 
legislators  in  regard  to  the  constitution  of  the  human 
body  ?  No  man  who  understood  physiology  could 
ever  have  sanctioned  a  law,  the  practical  effect  of 
which  is  to  consign  annually  so  many  victims  to  an 
untimely  grave. 

Many  parents,  from  over-anxiety  to  avoid  one 
form  of  evil,  run  blindfold  into  another  scarcely  less 
pernicious,  and  not  only  envelop  infants  in  innu- 
merable folds  of  warm  clothing,  but  keep  them  con- 
fined to  very  hot  and  close  rooms.  It  would  be  well 
for  them  to  recollect,  however,  that  extremes  are 
always  hurtful,  and  that  the  constitution  may  be 
enfeebled,  and  disease  induced,  by  too  much  heat 
and  clothing  and  too  close  an  atmosphere,  as  effec- 
tually as  by  cold  and  currents  of  air.  The  skin 
thus  opened  and  relaxed  perspires  too  easily,  and  is 
readily  affected  by  the  slightest  variations  of  tem- 
perature ;  whence  arise  colds  and  other  ailments, 
which  it  is  the  chief  intention  to  guard  against :  and 


RULES   FOR   DRESS.  65 

the  internal  organs,  being  at  the  same  time  deprived 
of  their  fair  proportion  of  blood,  become  enfeebled, 
and  afford  inadequate  nourishment  and  support  to 
the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  insensible  perspiration  being  composed  of  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  which  passes  off  in  the  form 
of  vapour  and  is  not  seen,  and  of  various  salts  and 
animal  matter,  a  portion  of  which  remains  adherent 
to  the  skin,  the  removal  of  this  residue  by  washing 
becomes  an  indispensable  condition  of  health,  the 
observance  of  which,  particularly  in  early  life,  when 
waste  and  nutrition  are  both  very  active,  prevents 
the  appearance  of  cutaneous  and  other  diseases 
common  in  infancy.  Not  only,  therefore,  is  daily 
washing  of  the  body  required  at  that  age,  but  a  fre- 
quent change  of  clothing  is  essential,  and  every 
thing  in  the  shape  of  dress  ought  to  be  loose  and 
easy,  both  to  allow  free  circulation  through  the 
vessels,  and  to  permit  the  insensible  perspiration  to 
have  a  free  exit,  instead  of  being  confined  to  and  ab- 
sorbed by  the  clothes,  and  held  in  contact  with  the 
skin,  as  often  happens,  till  it  gives  rise  to  irritation. 

In  youth,  the  skin  is  still  delicate  in  texture  and 
the  seat  of  extensive  exhalation  and  acute  sensa- 
tion, but  it  is  at  the  same  time  more  vigorous  in 
constitution  than  it  was  in  infancy  ;  and  the  several 
animal  functions  being  now  more  equally  balanced, 
it  is  less  susceptible  of  disorder  from  external 
causes,  and  can  endure  with  impunity  changes  of 
temperature  which,  at  either  an  earlier  or  more  ad- 
vanced age,  would  have  proved  highly  injurious. 
The  activity  and  restless  energy  of  youth  keep  up 
a  free  and  equal  circulation  even  in  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  body,  and  this  free  circulation  in  its 
turn  maintains  an  equality  of  temperature  in  them 
all.  Cold  bathing  and  lighter  clothing  may  now  be 
resorted  to  with  a  rational  prospect  of  advantage ; 
but  when,  from  a  weak  constitution  or  unusual  suscepti- 
bility',  the  skin  is  not  endowed  with  sufficient  vitality  to 
F2 


66  RULES    FOR   DRESS. 

originate  the  necessary  reaction,  which  alone  renders 
these  safe  and  proper , — when  they  produce  an  abiding 
sense  of  chillness,  however  slight  in  degree, — we  may 
rest  assured  that  mischief  will  inevitably  follow  at  a 
greater  or  shorter  distance  of  time.  Many  young  per- 
sons of  both  sexes  are  in  the  habit  of  going  about  in 
winter  and  in  cold  weather  with  a  dress  light  and 
airy  enough  for  a  northern  summer,  and  they  think 
it  manly  and  becoming  to  do  so  ;  but  those  who  are 
not  very  strongly  constituted  suffer  a  severe  penalty 
for  their  folly.  The  necessary  effect  of  deficient 
circulation  and  vitality  in  the  skin  is  to  throw  a  dis- 
proportionate mass  of  blood  inwards ;  and  when  this 
condition  exists,  insufficient  clothing  perpetuates  the 
evil,  until  internal  disease  is  generated,  and  health 
irrecoverably  lost.  Insufficient  clothing  not  only 
exposes  the  wearer  to  all  the  risk  of  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  but  it  is  still  more  dangerous  (be- 
cause in  a  degree  less  marked,  and  therefore  less 
apt  to  excite  attention  till  the  evil  be  incurred),  in 
that  form  which,  while  it  is  warm  enough  to  guard 
the  body  against  extreme  cold,  is  inadequate  to  pre- 
serving the  skin  at  its  natural  heat.  Many  youths, 
particularly  females  and  those  whose  occupations 
are  sedentary,  pass  days,  and  weeks,  and  months 
without  ever  experiencing  the  pleasing  glow  and 
warmth  of  a  healthy  skin,  and  are  habitually  com- 
plaining of  chillness  of  the  surface,  cold  feet,  and 
other  symptoms  of  deficient  cutaneous  circulation. 
Their  suffering,  unfortunately,  does  not  stop  here, 
for  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  blood  oppresses 
the  internal  organs,  and  too  often,  by  insensible  de- 
grees, lays  the  foundation  of  tubercles  in  the  lungs, 
and  other  maladies,  which  show  themselves  only 
when  arrived  at  an  incurable  stage.  Young  persons 
of  a  consumptive  habit  will  generally  be  found  to 
complain  of  this  increased  sensibility  to  cold,  even 
before  they  become  subject  to  those  slight  catarrhal 
attacks  which  are  so  often  the  immediate  precur- 


RULES    FOR    DRESS.  67 

sors,  or  rather  the  first  stages ,  of  pulmonary  con- 
sumption. All  who  value  health,  and  have  common 
sense  and  resolution,  will  therefore  take  warning 
from  signs  like  these,  and  never  rest  till  equilibrium 
of  action  be  restored.  For  this  purpose,  warm 
clothing,  exercise  in  the  open  air,  sponging  with 
vinegar  and  water,  the  warm  bath,  regular  friction 
with  a  flesh-brush  or  hair-glove,  and  great  cleanli- 
ness, are  excellently  adapted. 

But  while  sufficiency  of  clothing  is  attended  to, 
excessive  wrapping  up  must  be  as  carefully  avoided. 
Great  differences  in  the  power  of  generating  heat 
and  resisting  cold  exist  in  different  individuals,  and 
it  would  be  absurd  to  apply  the  same  rules  to  those 
who  never  feel  cold  as  to  those  who  are  peculiarly 
sensitive.  The  former  may  be  benefited  by  cold 
bathing  and  degrees  of  exposure  which  would  be 
fatal  to  the  latter.  The  rule  is,  therefore,  not  to 
dress  in  an  invariable  way  in  all  cases,  but  to  put  on 
clothing  in  kind  and  quantity  sufficient  in  the  individ- 
ual case  to  protect  the  body  effectually  from  an  abiding 
sensation  of  cold,  however  slight.  Warmth,  however, 
ought  not  to  be  sought  for  in  clothing  alone.  The 
Creator  has  made  exercise  essential  as  a  means ; 
and  if  we  neglect  this,  and  seek  it  in  clothing  alone,  it 
is  at  the  risk  or  rather  certainty  of  weakening  the 
body,  relaxing  the  surface,  and  rendering  the  sys- 
tem extremely  susceptible  of  injury  from  the  slight- 
est accidental  exposures,  or  variations  of  tempera- 
ture and  moisture.  Many  good  constitutions  are 
thus  ruined,  and  many  nervous  and  pulmonary  com- 
plaints brought  on,  to  imbitter  existence,  and  to  re- 
duce the  sufferer  to  the  level  of  a  hot-house  plant. 

Female  dress  errs  in  one  important  particular, 
even  when  well  suited  in  material  and  in  quantity. 
From  the  tightness  with  which  i{  is  made  to  fit  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  body,  not  only  is  the  insensible 
perspiration  injudiciously  and  hurtfully  confined,  but 
that  free  play  between  the  dress  and  the  skin  which 


68  WET    AND    COLD    FEET. 

is  so  beneficial  in  gently  stimulating  the  latter  by 
friction  on  every  movement  of  the  body  is  alto- 
gether prevented,  and  the  action  of  the  cutaneous 
nerves  and  vessels,  and  consequently  the  heat  gene- 
rated, rendered  lower  in  degree  than  would  result 
from  the  same  dress  worn  more  loosely.  Every 
part  and  every  function  are  thus  linked  so  closely 
with  the  rest,  that  we  can  neither  act  wrong  as  re- 
gards one  organ  without  all  suffering,  nor  act  right 
without  all  sharing  in  the  benefit. 

We  can  now  appreciate  the  manner  in  which  wet 
and  cold  feet  are  so  prolific  of  internal  disease,  and 
the  cruelty  of  fitting  up  schools  and  similar  places 
without  making  adequate  provision  for  the  welfare 
of  their  young  occupants.  The  circumstances  in 
which  wet  and  cold  feet  are  most  apt  to  cause  dis- 
ease are  where  the  person  remains  inactive,  and 
where,  consequently,  there  is  nothing  to  counter- 
balance the  unequal  flow  of  blood  which  then  takes 
place  towards  the  internal  parts :  for  it  is  well 
known  that  a  person  in  ordinary  health  may  walk 
about  or  work  in  the  open  air  with  wet  feet  for  hours 
together  without  injury,  provided  he  put  on  dry 
stockings  and  shoes  immediately  on  coming  home. 
It  is  therefore  not  the  mere  state  of  wetness  that 
causes  the  evil,  but  the  check  to  perspiration  and  the 
unequal  distribution  of  blood  to  which  the  accom- 
panying coldness  gives  rise.  Wet  and  damp  are 
more  unwholesome  when  applied  to  the  feet  than 
'  when  they  affect  other  parts,  chiefly  because  they 
receive  a  large  supply  of  blood  to  carry  on  a  high 
degree  of  perspiration,  and  because  their  distance 
from  the  heart  or  centre  of  circulation  diminishes 
the  force  with  which  this  is  carried  on.  and  thus 
leaves  them  more  susceptible  of  injury  from  ex- 
ternal causes.  They  are  also  more  exposed  in  situa- 
tion than  other  parts  of  the  skin ;  but  cold  or  wet 
applied  anywhere,  as  to  the  side  for  instance,  either 


ADVANTAGES    OF   FLANNEL.  69 

by  a  current  of  air  or  by  rain,  is  well  known  to  be 
pernicious. 

The  advantages  of  wearing  flannel  next  the  skin 
are  easily  explicable  on  the  above  principles.  Being 
a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  flannel  prevents  that  of  the 
animal  economy  from  being  quickly  dissipated,  and 
protects  the  body  in  a  considerable  degree  from  the 
injurious  influence  of  sudden  external  changes. 
From  its  presenting  a  rough  and  uneven  though  soft 
surface  to  the  skin,  every  movement  of  the  body  in 
labour  or  in  exercise  gives,  by  the  consequent  fric- 
tion, a  gentle  stimulus  to  the  cutaneous  vessels  and 
nerves,  which  assists  their  action,  and  maintains 
their  functions  in  health;  and  being  at  the  same 
time  of  a  loose  and  porous  texture,  flannel  is  capable 
of  absorbing  the  cutaneous  exhalations  to  a  larger 
extent  than  any  other  material  in  common  use.  In 
some  very  delicate  constitutions,  it  proves  even  too 
irritating  to  the  skin  ;  but,  in  such  cases,  fine  fleecy 
hosiery  will  in  general  be  easily  borne,  and  will 
greatly  conduce  to  the  preservation  of  health.  Many 
are  in  the  custom  of  waiting  till  winter  has  fairly 
set  in  before  beginning  to  wear  flannel.  This  is  a 
great  error  in  a  variable  climate  like  ours,  especially 
when  the  constitution  is  not  robust.  It  is  during 
the  sudden  changes  from  heat  to  cold,  which  are  so 
common  in  autumn,  before  the  frame  has  got  inured 
to  the  reduction  of  temperature,  that  protection  is 
most  wanted,  and  flannel  is  most  useful. 

The  advantages  of  flannel  as  a  preservative  from 
disease  in  warm  as  well  as  in  cold  climates  are 
now  so  well  understood,  that  in  the  army  and  navy 
its  use  is  cogently,  and  with  great  propriety,  in- 
sisted on.  Captain  Murray,  late  of  H.  M.  S.  Valo- 
rous, told  me  that  he  was  so  strongly  impressed 
from  former  experience  with  a  sense  of  the  efficacy 
of  the  protection  afforded  by  the  constant  use  of 
flannel  next  the  skin,  that  when,  on  his  arrival  in 
England  in  December,  1823,  after  two  years'  ser- 


70  ADVANTAGES    OF    FLANNEL. 

vice  amid  the  icebergs  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  the 
ship  was  ordered  to  sail  immediately  for  the  Wwt 
Indies,  he  ordered  the  purser  to  draw  two  extr<* 
flannel  shirts  and  pairs  of  drawers  for  each  man, 
and  instituted  a  regular  daily  inspection  to  see  that 
they  were  worn.  These  precautions  were  followed 
by  the  happiest  results.  He  proceeded  to  his 
station  with  a  crew  of  150  men;  visited  almost 
every  island  in  the  West  Indies,  and  many  of  the 
ports  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  and,  notwithstanding 
the  sudden  transition  from  extreme  climates,  re- 
turned to  England  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man, 
or  having  any  sick  on  board  on  his  arrival.  In  the 
letter  in  which  Captain  Murray  communicates  these 
facts,  he  adds,  that  every  precaution  was  used,  by 
lighting  stoves  between  decks  and  scrubbing  with 
hot  sand,  to  ensure  the  most  thorough  dryness,  and 
every  means  put  in  practice  to  promote  cheerfulness 
among  the  men.  When  in  command  of  the  Recruit 
gun-brig,  which  lay  about  nine  weeks  at  Vera 
Cruz,  the  same  means  preserved  the  health  of  his 
crew,  when  the  other  ships  of  war  anchored  around 
him  lost  from  twenty  to  fifty  men  each. 

That  the  superior  health  enjoyed  by  the  crew  of 
the  Valorous  was  attributable  chiefly  to  the  means 
employed  by  their  humane  and  intelligent  com- 
mander is  shown  by  the  analogy  of  the  Recruit ;  for 
although  constant  communication  was  kept  up  be- 
tween the  latter  and  the  other  ships  in  which 
sickness  prevailed,  and  all  were  exposed  to  the 
same  external  causes  of  disease,  yet  no  case  of 
sickness  occurred  on  board  the  Recruit.  Facts  like 
these  are  truly  instructive,  by  proving  how  far  man 
possesses  the  power  of  protecting  himself  from 
injury,  when  he  has  received  necessary  instruction, 
and  chooses  to  adapt  his  conduct  to  his  situation. 

The  exhalation  from  the  skin  being  so  constant 
and  extensive,  its  bad  effects,  when  confined,  sug- 
gest another  rule  of  conduct,  viz-  that  of  frequently 


VENTILATION   OF    BEDS    AND    CLOtHINO.        71 

changing  and  airing  the  clothes,  so  as  to  free  them 
from  every  impurity.  It  is  an  excellent  plan,  for 
instance,  to  wear  two  sets  of  flannels,  each  being 
worn  and  aired  by  turns,  on  alternate  days.  The 
effect  is  at  first  scarcely  perceptible,  but  in  the 
course  of  time  its  advantages  and  comfort  become 
very  manifest,  as  the  writer  has  amply  experienced. 
For  the  same  reason,  a  practice  common  in  Italy 
merits  universal  adoption.  Instead  of  beds  being 
made  up  in  the  morning  the  moment  they  are  va- 
cated, and  while  still  saturated  with  the  nocturnal 
exhalations  which,  before  morning,  become  sensible 
even  to  smell  in  a  bed-room,  the  bed-clothes  are 
thrown  over  the  backs  of  chairs,  the  mattresses 
shaken  up,  and  the  window  thrown  open  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  day,  so  as  to  secure  a  thorough 
and  cleansing  ventilation.  This  practice,  so  conso- 
nant to  reason,  imparts  a  freshness  which  is  pecu- 
liarly grateful  and  conducive  to  sleep,  and  its  real 
value  may  be  inferred  from  the  well-known  fact,  that 
the  opposite  practice,  carried  to  an  extreme,  as  in 
the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  where  three  or  four  beds 
are  often  huddled  up  with  all  their  impurities  in  a 
small  room,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  fever  and  bad 
health,  even  where  ventilation  during  the  day  and 
nourishment  are  not  deficient.  In  the  abodes  of  the 
poor  Irish  residing  in  Edinburgh,  I  have  seen  bed- 
ding for  fourteen  persons  spread  over  one  floor  not 
exceeding  twelve  feet  square,  and  when  mornin 
came,  the  beds  were  huddled  above  one  another  to 
make  sitting-room  during  the  day,  and  at  night  were 
again  laid  down,  charged  with  accumulated  exhala- 
tions. If  fever  were  not  to  appear  in  such  circum- 
stances, it  would  be  indeed  marvellous ;  and  we 
ought  to  learn  from  this,  that  if  the  extreme  be  so 
injurious,  the  lesser  degree  implied  in  the  prevalent 
practice  cannot  be  wholesome,  and  ought,  there- 
fore, not  to  be  retained  when  it  can  be  so  easily 
done  a waar  with 


72  INFLUENCE    OF   LIGHT. 

The  salutary  influence  of  the  solar  light  as  & 
stimulus  to  the  skin  has  been  much  overlooked,  and 
yet  it  must  be  obvious  to  every  one  after  a  moment's 
reflection.  Those  who  live  in  mines  or  dark  caves, 
and  who  are  rarely  exposed  to  the  light  of  day,  pre- 
sent a  pale  relaxed  sallowness  of  skin,  which  con- 
trasts with  the  ruddy  freshness  of  country  people 
and  others  living  much  in  the  open  air.  The  In- 
habitants of  towns  may  be  known  by  the  light 
colour  and  delicacy  of  skin  which  confinement 
induces.  Part  of  the  effect  is  owing,  no  doubt,  to 
the  agency  of  the  external  air,  in  the  constitution 
of  which  the  skin  seems  to  produce  changes  analo- 
gous to  those  which  take  place  in  the  lungs  during 
respiration  ;  but  much  is  also  attributable  to  depri- 
vation of  the  stimulus  of  light.  Even  vegetables 
become  pale,  watery,  and  feeble  in  the  dark;  and,  in 
like  manner,  men  who  work  during  the  night  and 
sleep  during  the  day  never  present  the  vigorous 
look  of  health,  which  distinguishes  well-fed  day- 
labourers.  The  squalid  paleness  and  depression  of 
the  poor  population,  resident  in  the  dark  lanes  of 
large  and  crowded  cities,  show  the  necessity  of 
consulting  the  wants  of  nature  more  than  is  gene- 
rally done,  when  erecting  new  streets  and  manufac- 
tories, and  providing  play-ground  for  the  young. 

When  the  saline  and  animal  elements  left  by  the 
perspiration  are  not  duly  removed  by  washing  or 
bathing,  they  at  last  obstruct  the  pores  and  irritate 
the  skin.  And  it  is  apparently  for  this  reason  that, 
in  the  eastern  and  warmer  countries,  where  perspi- 
ration is  very  copious,  ablution  and  bathing  have 
assumed  the  rank  and  importance  of  religious  ob- 
servances. Those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  using 
the  flesh-brush  daily  are  at  first  surprised  at  the 
quantity  of  white  dry  scurf  which  it  brings  off;  and 
those  who  take  a  warm  bath  for  half  an  hour  at  long 
intervals  cannot  fail  to  have  noticed  the  great 
amount  of  impurities  which  it  removed,  and  the 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ABLUTION  AND  BATHING.   73 

grateful  feeling  of  comfort  which  its  use  imparts. 
The  warm,  tepid,  cold,  or  shower  bath,  as  a  means 
of  preserving  health,  ought  to  be  in  as  common  use 
as  a  change  of  apparel,  for  it  is  equally  a  measure 
of  necessary  cleanliness.  Many,  no  doubt,  neglect 
this,  and  enjoy  health  notwithstanding ;  but  many, 
very  many,  suffer  from  its  omission ;  and  even  the 
former  would  be  benefited  by  employing  it.  The 
perception  of  this  truth  is  gradually  extending,  and 
baths  are  now  to  be  found  in  fifty  places  for  one  in 
which  they  could  be  obtained  twenty  years  ago. 
Even  yet,  however,  we  are  far  behind  our  conti- 
nental neighbours  in  this  respect.  They  justly  con- 
sider the  bath  as  a  necessary  of  life,  while  we  still 
regard  it  as  a  luxury. 

When  we  consider  the  importance  of  the  exhala- 
tion performed  by  the  skin,  the  extent  to  which  ab- 
lution and  bathing  of  every  description  are  neglected 
in  charitable  institutions,  in  seminaries  for  the 
young,  and  even  by  many  persons  who  consider 
themselves  as  patterns  of  cleanliness,  is  almost  in- 
credible. Mr.  Stuart,  in  speaking  of  the  North 
Americans,  states  in  his  remarks,  that  "  the  prac- 
tice of  travellers  washing  at  the  doors,  or  in  the 
porticoes  or  stoops,  or  at  the  wells  of  taverns  and 
hotels  once  a  day,  is  most  prejudicial  to  health  ;  the 
ablution  of  the  body,  which  ought  never  to  be  neg- 
lected, at  least  twice  a  day,  in  a  hot  climate,  being 
altogether  inconsistent  with  it.  In  fact,"  he  adds, 
"  I  have  found  it  more  difficult,  in  travelling  in  the 
United  States,  to  procure  a  liberal  supply  of  water 
at  all  times  of  the  day  and  night  in  my  bedchamber 
than  to  obtain  any  other  necessary.  A  supply  for 
washing  the  face  and  hands  once  a  day  seems  all  that  is 
thought  requisite."*  But,  bad  as  this  is,  I  fear  that 
numbers  of  sensible  people  may  be  found  much 
nearer  home,  who  limit  their  ablutions  to  the  visible 

*  Three  Years  in  America,  vol.  11.  p.  440. 
G 


74  COLD,  TEPID,  AND    WARM    BATH. 

parts  of  their  persons,  and  would  even  express 
surprise  if  told  that  more  than  this  is  necessary  to 
health.  Certain  it  is,  that  many  never  wash  their 
bodies  at  all,  unless  they  happen  to  be  at  sea-bath- 
ing quarters  in  summer,  or  are  oppressed  with  heat, 
when  they  will  resort  to  bathing  as  a  means  of  com- 
fort, but  without  thinking  at  all  of  its  efficacy  as  a 
means  of  cleanliness  in  preserving  health.  In 
many  public  charities  and  schools,  in  like  manner, 
bathing  or  ablution  is  never  thought  of  as  a  proper 
or  practicable  thing,  except  for  the  sick ;  and  yet, 
it  is  obviously  of  great  importance  to  every  one, 
especiaJ]y  to  the  young.* 

For  general  use,  the  tepid  or  warm  bath  seems  to 
me  much  more  suitable  than  the  cold  bath,  especi- 
ally in  winter,  and  for  those  who  are  not  robust  and 
full  of  animal  heat.  Where  the  constitution  is  not 
sufficiently  vigorous  to  secure  reaction  after  the 
cold  bath,  as  indicated  by  a  warm  glow  over  the 
surface,  its  use  inevitably  does  harm.  A  vast  num- 
ber of  persons  are  in  this  condition ;  while,  on  the 
contrary,  there  are  few  indeed  who  do  not  derive 
evident  advantage  from  the  regular  use  of  the  tepid 
bath,  and  still  fewer  who  are  hurt  by  it. 

Where  the  health  is  good,  and  the  bodily  powers 
are  sufficiently  vigorous,  the  cold  bath  during  sum- 
mer, and  the  shower-bath  in  winter,  may  serve 
every  purpose  required  from  them.  But  it  should 
never  b  e  forgotten,  that  they  are  too  powerful  in 

*  While  revising  these  pages,  a  friend  has  mentioned  to  me 
A  case  strikingly  illustrative  of  the  necessity  of  attending  to  the 
condition  of  the  skin,  and  of  the  sympathy  subsisting  between 
it  and  the  bowels.  A  lady,  who  is  in  other  respects  very  cleanly 
in  her  habits,  has  never  been  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  bath 
or  to  general  ablution  of  any  kind,  and  in  consequence  the  skin 
acts  very  imperfectly.  Asa  substitute,  however,  for  its  exhala- 
tion, she  has  all  her  life  been  affected  with  bowel  complaint, 
which  no  treatment  directed  to  the  bowels  has  been  able  to  re- 
move. It  is  probable  that  the  natural  course  of  the  exhalation 
could  not  now  be  restored. 


COLD,  TEPID,  AND  WARM  BATH.       75 

their  agency  to  be  used  with  safety  by  every  one, 
especially  in  cold  weather.  In  proportion  as  cold 
bathing  is  influential  in  the  restoration  of  health 
when  judiciously  used,  it  is  hurtful  when  resorted 
to  without  discrimination ;  and  invalids  therefore 
ought  never  to  have  recourse  to  it  without  the  sane 
tion  of  their  professional  advisers. 

Even  where  cold  bathing  is  likely  to  be  of  service 
when  judiciously  employed,  much  mischief  often 
results  from  prolonging  the  immersion  too  long,  or 
from  resorting  to  it  when  the  vital  powers  are  too 
languid  to  admit  of  the  necessary  reaction — before 
breakfast,  for  example,  or  after  fatigue.  For  this 
reason,  many  persons  derive  much  benefit  from 
bathing  early  in  the  forenoon,  who,  when  they 
bathe  in  the  morning  before  taking  any  sustenance, 
do  not  speedily  recover  their  natural  heat  and  elas- 
ticity of  feeling. 

For  those  who  are  not  robust,  daily  sponging  of 
the  body  with  cold  water  and  vinegar,  or  salt  water, 
is  the  best  substitute  for  the  cold  bath,  and  may  be 
resorted  to  with  safety  and  advantage  in  most  states 
of  the  system  ;  especially  when  care  is  taken  to 
excite  in  the  surface,  by  subsequent  friction  with 
the  flesh-brush  or  hair-glove,  the  healthy  glow  of  re- 
action. It  then  becomes  an  excellent  preservative 
from  the  effects  of  changeable  weather.  When, 
however,  a  continued  sensation  of  coldness  or  chill 
is  perceptible  over  the  body,  sponging  ought  not  to 
be  persisted  in  :  dry  friction,  aided  by  the  tepid  bath, 
is  then  greatly  preferable,  and  often  proves  highly 
serviceable  in  keeping  up  the  due  action  of  the  skin. 

For  habitual  use,  the  tepid  or  warm  bath  is  cer- 
tainly the  safest  and  most  valuable,  especially  during 
the  autumn,  winter,  and  spring,  and  for  invalids.  A 
temperature  ranging  from  859  to  98°,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  individual,  is  the  most  suitable  ;  and 
the  duration  of  the  immersion  may  vary  from  fifteen 
minutes  to  an  hour,  or  more,  according  to  circum* 


76  COLD,    TEPID,    AND    WARM   BATH. 

stances.  As  a  general  rule,  the  water  ought  simply 
to  be  warm  enough  to  feel  pleasant,  without  giving 
a  positive  sensation  of  heat :  the  degree  at  which 
this  happens  varies  a  good  deal  according  to  the 
constitution  and  state  of  health  at  the  time.  Some- 
times, when  the  generation  of  animal  heat  is  great, 
a  bath  at  95°  will  be  felt  disagreeably  warm  and  re- 
laxing; while,  at  another  time,  when  the  animal 
heat  is  produced  in  deficient  quantity,  the  same  tem- 
perature will  cause  a  chilly  sensation.  The  rule, 
then,  is  to  avoid  equally  the  positive  impressions  of 
heat  and  of  cold,  and  to  seek  the  agreeable  medium. 
A  bath  of  the  latter  description  is  the  reverse  of 
relaxing ;  it  gives  a  cheerful  tone  and  activity  to  all 
the  functions,  and  may  be  used  every  day,  or  on 
alternate  days,  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  with 
much  advantage. 

A  person  in  sound  health  and  strength  may  take 
a  bath  at  any  time,  except  immediately  after  meals. 
But  the  lest  time  for  valetudinarians  is  in  the  fore- 
noon or  evening,  two  or  three  hours  after  a  moderate 
meal,  when  the  system  is  invigorated  by  food,  but 
not  oppressed  by  the  labour  of  digestion.  When 
the  bath  is  delayed  till  five  or  six  hours  after  eating, 
delicate  people  sometimes  become  faint  under  its 
operation,  and,  from  the  absence  of  reaction,  are 
rather  weakened  by  the  relaxation  it  then  induces. 
As  a  general  rule,  active  exertion  ought  to  be  avoided 
for  an  hour  or  two  after  using  the  warm  or  tepid 
bath;  and,  unless  we  wish  to  induce  perspiration, 
it  ought  to  be  taken  immediately  before  going  to 
bed ;  or,  if  it  is,  it  ought  to  be  merely  tepid,  and 
not  of  too  long  duration. 

These  rules  apply  of  course  only  to  persons  in  an 
ordinary  state  of  health.  If  organic  disease,  head- 
ache, feverishness,  constipation,  or  other  ailment 
exist,  bathing  ought  never  to  be  employed  without 
medical  advice.  But  that  it  is  a  safe  and  valuable 
preservative  of  health  in  ordinary  circumstances,  and 


VAPOUR-BATH.  77 

an  active  remedy  in  disease,  is  most  certain.  Instead 
of  being  dangerous  by  causing  liability  to  cold,  it  is, 
when  well  managed,  so  much  the  reverse,  that  the 
author  of  these  pages  has  used  it  much  and  suc- 
cessfully for  the  express  purpose  of  diminishing 
such  liability,  both  in  himself  and  others  with  whom 
the  chest  is  delicate.  In  his  own  instance,  in  par- 
ticular, he  is  conscious  of  having  derived  much  ad- 
vantage from  its  regular  employment,  especially  in 
the  colder  months  of  the  year,  during  which  he  has 
uniformly  found  himself  most  effectually  strength- 
ened against  the  impression  of  cold,  by  repeating 
the  bath  at  shorter  intervals  than  usual. 

In  many  manufactories  where  warm  water  is 
always  obtainable,  it  would  be  a  very  great  advan- 
tage to  have  a  few  baths  erected  for  the  use  of  the 
operatives.  Not  only  would  these  be  useful  in  pro- 
moting health  and  cleanliness,  but  they  would,  by 
their  refreshing  and  soothing  influence,  diminish  the 
craving  for  stimulus  which  leads  so  many  to  the  gin- 
shop  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  calm  the  irritability  of 
mind  so  apt  to  be  induced  by  excessive  labour. 
Where  the  trade  is  dirty,  as  many  trades  necessarily 
are,  it  is  needless  to  say  how  conducive  to  health 
and  comfort  a  tepid  bath  would  be  on  quitting  it  for 
the  day. 

On  the  Continent,  the  vapour  and  hot  air-baths 
are  had  recourse  to,  both  as  a  means  of  health  and 
in  the  cure  of  disease,  to  an  infinitely  greater  extent 
than  they  are  in  this  country.  Their  use  is  attended 
by  the  very  best  effects,  particularly  in  chronic  ail- 
ments, and  there  can  be  no  question  that  their  action 
is  chiefly  on  the  skin,  and  through  its  medium  on 
the  nervous  system.  As  a  means  of  determining  to 
the  surface,  promoting  cutaneous  exhalation,  and 
equalizing  the  circulation,  they  are  second  to  no 
remedy  now  in  use  ;  and  consequently,  in  a  variety 
of  affections  which  the  encouragement  of  these 
processes  is  calculated  to  relieve,  they  may  be  em- 
O9 


78  VAPOUR-BATH- 

ployed  with  every  prospect  of  advantage.  The 
prevalent  fear  of  catching  cold,  which  deters  many 
from  using  the  vapour-bath,  even  more  than  from 
warm  bathing,  is  founded  on  a  false  analogy  be- 
tween its  effects  and  those  of  profuse  perspiration 
from  exercise  or  illness.  The  latter  weakens  the 
body,  and,  by  diminishing  the  power  of  reaction, 
renders  it  susceptible  of  injury  from  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  But  the  effect  of  the  vapour-bath 
properly  administered  is  very  different.  When  not 
too  warm  or  too  long  continued,  it  increases  instead 
of  exhausting  the  strength,  and,  by  exciting  the 
vital  action  of  the  skin,  gives  rise  to  a  power  of  re- 
action which  enables  it  to  resist  cold  better  than 
before.  This  I  have  heard  many  patients  remark  ; 
and  the  fact  is  well  exemplified  in  Russia  and  the 
north  of  Europe,  where,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  it  is 
not  uncommon  for  tha  natives  tcrrush  out  of  a  va- 
pour-bath and  roll  themselves  in  the  snow,  and  be 
refreshed  by  doing  so ;  whereas,  were  they  to  at- 
tempt such  a  practice  after  severe  perspiration  from 
exercise,  they  would  inevitably  suffer.  It  is  the 
previous  stimulus  given  to  the  skin  by  the  vapour- 
bath  which  is  the  real  safeguard  against  the  cold- 
ness of  the  snow. 

Common  experience  affords  another  illustration 
of  the  same  principle.  If,  in  a  cold  winter  day,  we 
chance  to  sit  for  some  time  in  a  room  imperfectly 
warmed,  and  feel  in  consequence  a  sensation  of 
chillness  over  the  body,  we  are  much  more  likely  to 
catch  cold  on  going  out  than  if  we  had  been  sitting 
in  a  room  comfortably  warm.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  cutaneous  circulation  and  nervous  action  go  on 
vigorously ;  heat  is  freely  generated,  and  the  vital 
action  of  the  skin  is  in  its  full  force.  The  change 
to  a  lower  temperature,  if  accompanied  with  exer- 
cise to  keep  up  this  vitality,  is  then  felt  to  be  bracing 
and  stimulating  rather  than  disagreeable.  But  it  is 
widely  different  when  the  surface  is  already  chilled 


VAPOUR    BATH.  79 

before  going  out.  The  vitality  of  the  skiu  being 
diminished,  reaction  cannot  follow  additional  ex- 
posure ;  the  circulation  leaves  the  surface,  and  be- 
comes still  more  internal ;  and,  if  weakness  exists 
in  the  throat  or  chest,  cold  is  the  almost  certain -re- 
sult. Many  suffer  from  ignorance  of  this  principle. 

The  vapour-bath  is  thus  calculated  to  be  exten- 
sively useful,  both  as  a  preservative  and  as  a  reme 
dial  agent.  Many  a  cold  and  many  a  rheumatic 
attack  arising  from  checked  perspiration  or  long 
exposure  to  the  weather  might  be  nipped  in  the  bud 
by  its  timely  use.  In  chronic  affections,  not  only 
of  the  skin  itself,  but  of  the  internal  organs  with 
which  the  skin  sympathizes  most  closely,  as  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  the  judicious  application  of 
the  vapour-bath  is  productive  of  great  relief.  Even 
in  chronic  pulmonary  complaints,  it  is,  according  to 
the  continental  physicians,  not  only  safe,  but  very 
serviceable ;  particularly  in  those  affections  of  the 
mucous  membrane  which  resemble  consumption  in 
so  many  of  their  symptoms.  Like  all  powerful 
remedies,  however,  the  vapour-bath  must  be  admin- 
istered with  careful  regard  to  the  condition  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  individual. 

It  happens  occasionally,  either  from  some  pecu- 
liarity of  constitution,  or  from  some  unusual  condi- 
tion of  the  skin,  indicated  by  great  dryness  and  a 
liability  to  erysipelatous  and  scaly  eruptions,  that 
the  moisture  of  the  water  or  vapour-bath  is  at  first 
rather  prejudicial  and  unpleasant,  and  becomes 
grateful  only  in  proportion  as  the  skin  regains  its 
healthy  state.  In  such  cases,  the  warm  air-bath  is 
said  to  be  remarkably  successful,  and  is  gaining 
ground  very  rapidly  in  the  metropolis. 

Although  the  preceding  remarks  apply  specially 
to  the  skin  considered  as  an  exhalant,  yet  most  of 
them  are  equally  applicable  to  it  when  viewed  as  the 
seat  of  an  important  nervous  function.  For  so  inti- 
mately and  beautifully  are  all  the  parts  of  the  frame 


80  WARM   BATH    BENEFICIAL 

connected  with  each  other,  that  what  is  really  good 
for  one  rarely  if  ever  fails  to  be  beneficial  to  the 
rest.  Thus  while  exercise,  adequate  clothing,  the 
bath,  friction,  and  cleanliness  are  very  efficacious 
in  promoting  the  insensible  perspiration  and  equal- 
izing the  circulation,  they  are  almost  equally  influ- 
ential in  promoting  the  vital  action  of  the  innumer- 
able nervous  filaments  ramified  on  the  skin,  and  the 
tone  of  which  is  as  essential  as  that  of  the  blood- 
vessels to  the  proper  discharge  of  the  cutaneous 
functions.  In  the  large  and  afflicting  class  of  ner- 
vous and  mental  diseases,  attention  to  the  skin  be- 
comes therefore  almost  a  sine  qua  non  of  successful 
treatment.  As  a  preservative,  too,  it  is  influential. 
In  most  nervous  ailments,  languor  and  inaction  of 
the  skin  show  themselves  simultaneously  with  the 
earliest  dawn  of  mental  uneasiness,  and  often  attract 
notice  before  the  morbid  feelings  of  the  mind  have 
acquired  either  permanence  or  strength.  At  this 
early  period,  the  use  of  the  bath  will  frequently 
prove  very  efficacious  in  restoring  health. 

Many  imagine  the  tepid  and  warm  bath  to  be 
weakening,  but  experience  shows  that  they  are  so 
only  when  abused.  When  not  too  warm,  and  not 
prolonged  beyond  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  the 
tepid  bath  may  be  employed  daily  with  perfect  safety 
and  advantage  by  persons  in  health  ;  while  invalids, 
whose  condition  requires  its  use,  are  often  strength- 
ened by  a  much  longer  and  equally  frequent  immer- 
sion. I  have  seen  it  resorted  to  for  an  hour  daily, 
for  months  in  succession,  by  nervous  invalids,  with 
much  benefit  to  health  and  strength  ;  and  in  France 
it  is  employed  to  an  infinitely  greater  extent.  At 
the  immense  hospital  of  Salpetriere  at  Paris,  and 
also  at  Charenton,  M.  Esquirol  has  for  many  years 
directed  it  to  be  extensively  used  for  two,  three, 
and  even  five  or  six  hours  a  day,  and  with  excellent 
effect.  When  I  visited  the  hospital  for  the  insane 
at  Charenton,  and  M.  EsquiroPs  admirable  private 


TO    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  81 

asylum  at  Ivry  in  September,  1831,  that  gentleman 
spoke  to  me  in  very  strong  terms  of  the  benefits  re- 
sulting from  the  practice,  and  declared  that  he  had 
ever  found  it,  when  used  with  ordinary  prudence,  a 
safe  and  valuable  remedy;  and  that,  in  reality,  it 
failed  to  do  good  in  some  cases  more  from  the  pa- 
tient remaining  in  it  too  short  a  time,  than  from  its 
want  of  power  to  relieve. 

In  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Reviews  for  January 
and  April,  1833,  a  very  interesting  outline  is  given  of  an 
article  published  in  the  Revue  Medicate,  illustrative  of 
the  efficacy  of  the  tepid  bath  and  the  affusion  of  cooler 
water  on  the  head  during  the  last  few  minutes  of  im- 
mersion, in  the  cure  of  a  variety  of  nervous  and  head 
affections  of  considerable  obstinacy  and  severity. 
Dr.  Johnson,  the  editor  of  the  Review,  adds  his  tes- 
timony to  the  success  of  the  practice,  and  the  re- 
sults obtained  agree  entirely  with  my  own  expe- 
rience ;  but,  as  these  papers  relate  to  the  treat- 
ment of  disease,  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  do  more 
here  than  recommend  them  to  the  attention  of  the 
professional  reader.  I  may  mention,  however,  that 
Dr.  Recamier  frequently  orders  the  bath  to  be  re- 
peated two,  three,  or  even  four  times  in  a  day.  So 
little  reality  is  there  in  its  supposed  debilitating 
effect. 

I  mention  these  facts  to  show,  that  attention  to 
the  health  of  the  skin  is  really  influential  in  preserv- 
ing the  tone  of  the  nervous  system,  and  in  con- 
tributing to  mental  and  bodily  comfort,  and  not  for 
the  purpose  of  inducing  persons  in  bad  health  t<j 
have  recourse  to  the  bath  of  their  own  accord, 
which  they  ought  never  to  do,  as  they  may  chance 
to  suffer  from  using  it  unseasonably.  No  rules  of 
universal  application  can  be  laid  down,  and  this  is 
not  the  place  for  a  professional  disquisition. 

If  the  bath  cannot  be  had  at  all  places,  soap  and 
water  may  be  obtained  everywhere,  and  leave  no 
apology  for  neglecting  the  skin ;  or,  as  already  men- 


82  CONNEXION    BETWEEN    THE    SKIN 

tioned,  if  the  constitution  be  delicate,  water  and 
vinegar,  or  water  and  salt,  used  daily,  form  *  an  ex- 
cellent and  safe  means  of  cleansing  and  gently 
stimulating  the  skin :  to  the  invalid,  they  are  highly 
beneficial,  when  the  nature  of  the  indisposition  does 
not  render  them  improper.  A  rough  and  rather 
coarse  towel  is  a  very  useful  auxiliary  in  such  ablu- 
tions. Few  of  those  who  have  steadiness  enough 
to  keep  up  the  action  of  the  skin  by  the  above  means, 
and  to  avoid  strong  exciting  causes,  will  ever  suffer 
from  colds,  sore  throats,  or  similar  complaints ; 
while,  as  a  means  of  restoring  health,  they  are  often 
incalculably  serviceable.  If  one-tenth  of  the  perse- 
vering attention  and  labour  bestowed  to  so  much 
purpose  in  rubbing  down  and  currying  the  skins 
of  horses,  were  bestowed  by  the  human  race  in 
keeping  themselves  in  good  condition,  and  a  little 
attention  were  paid  to  diet  and  clothing, — colds, 
nervous  diseases,  and  stomach  complaints  would 
cease  to  form  so  large  an  item  in  the  catalogue  of 
human  miseries.  Man  studies  the  nature  of  other 
animals,  and  adapts  his  conduct  to  their  constitu- 
tion ;  himself  alone  he  continues  ignorant  of,  and 
neglects.  He  considers  himself  as  a  being  of  a  su- 
perior order,  and  not  subject  to  the  laws  of  organi- 
zation which  regulate  the  functions  of  the  inferior 
animals ;  but  this  conclusion  is  the  result  of  igno- 
rance and  pride,  and  not  a  just  inference  from  the 
premises  on  which  it  is  ostensibly  founded. 

The  writer  of  these  remarks  has,  unfortunately 
for  himself,  had  extensive  experience,  in  his  own 
person,  of  the  connexion  between  the  state  of  the 
skin  and  the  health  of  the  lungs ;  and  can  therefore 
speak  with  some  confidence  as  to  the  accuracy  of 
his  observations,  and  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
attending  to  the  condition  of  the  skin  in  chronic  pul- 
monary complaints.  Many  affections  of  a  consump- 
tive character  are  preceded  or  begin  by  a  deficiency 


ANP    THE    LUNGS.  83 

of  vital  action  in  the  skin  and  extremities,  and  a 
consequent  feeling  of  coldness  in  the  feet  and  on 
the  surface,  and  susceptibility  of  catarrhal  affections 
from  apparently  inadequate  causes,  often  long  before 
any  pressing  symptom,  directly  connected  with  the 
lungs,  occurs  to  attract  notice.  In  this  state,  means 
systematically  directed  to  restoring  the  cutaneous 
>  circulation  will  frequently  be  successful  in  warding 
off  consumption ;  and  even  when  the  disease  is 
formed,  the  same  means  will  help  to  prolong  life  and 
relieve  suffering,  while  they  will  go  far  to  effect  a 
cure  in  those  chronic  affections  of  the  bronchial 
membrane  which  simulate  consumption  and  are 
sometimes  undistinguishable  from  it,  and  which, 
when  mismanaged,  are  equally  fatal. 

The  two  remedies  which  have  the  oldest  and 
most  general  reputation  in  the  successful  treatment 
of  pulmonary  and  consumptive  disease  have  this 
quality  in  common,  that  both  owe  much  of  their 
influence  to  their  exciting  the  cutaneous  functions, 
and  equalizing  the  circulation.  I  allude  to  sailing, 
and  riding  on  horseback.  Many  authors  speak  of 
both  in  the  highest  terms,  and  Sydenham  is  well 
known  to  have  considered  the  latter  as  almost  a 
specific.  Dr.  Rush,  of  Philadelphia,  too,  extols  it 
with  nearly  equal  force.  So  far  as  my  observation 
goes,  these  exercises  are  productive  of  advantage, 
chiefly  in  proportion  as  they  determine  the  blood  to 
the  surface,  which  squeamishness,  sea-sickness,  and 
riding  all  do  in  a  powerful  manner.  Riding  seems 
to  have  this  effect,  partly  from  the  bodily  exercise 
giving  general  vigour  to  the  circulation,  and  partly 
from  the  continued  gentle  friction  between  the  skin 
and  the  clothes  stimulating  the  cutaneous  vessels 
and  nerves.  This  latter  effect  is  of  more  import- 
ance than  many  believe.  Those,  accordingly,  who 
are  proof  against  sea-sickness,  derive  least  benefit 
from  the  voyage ;  while  those  who  suffer  under  it 
long  are  compensated  by  the  amelioration  which  it 


84  CONNEXION   BETWEEN    THE    SKIN 

induces  in  the  more  serious  malady.  The  writer  of 
these  remarks  became  ill  in  the  month  of  January, 
1820,  and  soon  presented  many  of  the  symptoms  of 
pulmonary  consumption.  In  spite  of  the  best  ad- 
vice, he  continued  losing  ground  till  the  month  of 
July,  when  he  went  by  sea  to  London,  on  his  way 
to  the  south  of  France  ;  but,  finding  himself  unable 
for  the  journey,  he  was  obliged  to  return  from  Lon- 
don also  by  sea.  Being  extremely  liable  to  sea- 
sickness, he  was  squeamish  or  sick  during  the  whole 
of  both  voyages — so  much  so  as  to  be  in  a  state  of 
gentle  perspiration  for  a  great  part  of  the  time. 
After  this  he  became  sensible  for  the  first  time  of  a 
slight  improvement  in  his  health  and  strength,  and 
of  a  diminution  of  febrile  excitement.  Some  weeks 
afterward,  he  embarked  for  the  Mediterranean,  and 
encountered  a  succession  of  storms  for  the  first  four 
weeks,  two  of  which  were  spent,  in  the  month  of 
November,  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in  a  very  heavy  sea. 
For  more  than  three  weeks  he  was  generally  very 
sick,  and  always  in  a  state  of  nausea ;  and  during 
the  whole  time,  although  his  bed  was  repeatedly 
partially  wetted  by  salt  water,  and  the  weather  cold, 
the  flow  of  blood  towards  the  skin  was  so  powerful 
as  to  keep  it  generally  warm,  always  moist,  and 
often  wet  with  perspiration,  forced  out  by  retching 
and  nausea.  The  result  was,  that,  on  entering  the 
Mediterranean  at  the  end  of  a  month,  and  there 
meeting  fine  weather,  he  found  himself,  though  still 
more  reduced  in  flesh  and  very  weak,  in  every  other 
respect  decidedly  improved ;  and  on  his  arrival  in 
Italy  at  the  end  of  seven  weeks,  recovery  fairly 
commenced,  after  about  ten  months'  illness,  and  by 
great  care  it  went  on  with  little  interruption,  till  the 
summer  of  1821,  when  he  returned  home. 

To  carry  on  what  was  so  well  begun,  riding  on 
horseback  in  the  country  was  resorted  to,  and  that 
exercise  was  found  to  excite  the  skin  so  beneficially, 
us  to  keep  it  always  pleasantly  warm,  and  generally 


AND    THE    LUNGS.  85 

bedewed  with  moisture,  even  to  the  extremities  of 
the  toes ;  and  in  proportion  to  this  effect  was  the 
advantage  derived  from  it,  in  relieving  the  chest, 
increasing  the  strength,  and  improving  the  appetite. 
A  second  winter  was  spent  in  the  south  with  equal 
benefit ;  and  in  the  summer  of  1822,  riding  was  re- 
sumed at  home,  and  the  health  continued  to  improve. 
The  excitement  given  to  the  skin  by  riding  was 
sufficient  to  keep  the  feet  warm,  and  to  prevent  even 
considerable  changes  of  temperature  from  being 
felt :  and  rain  was  not  more  regarded,  although  spe- 
cial attention  was  of  course  paid  to  taking  off  damp 
or  wet  clothes  the  moment  the  ride  was  at  an  end. 
Strength  increased  so  much  under  this  plan,  com- 
bined with  sponging,  friction,  and  other  means,  that 
it  was  persevered  in  through  the  very  severe  winter 
of  1822-3,  and  with  the  best  effect's.  For  nine  years 
thereafter  the  health  continued  good,  under  the 
usual  exposures  of  professional  life:  but  in  1831  it 
again  gave  way,  and  pulmonary  symptoms  of  a  sus- 
picious character  once  more  made  their  appearance. 
The  same  system  was  pursued,  and  the  same  results 
have  again  followed  the  invigoration  of  the  cutane- 
ous functions  and  of  the  general  health,  by  a  sea- 
voyage,  horseback  exercise,  and  the  regular  use  of 
the  bath.  These,  as  formerly,  have  proved  bene- 
ficial in  proportion  to  their  influence  in  keeping  up 
the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the  surface  and  ex- 
tremities. 

In  thus  insisting  upon  the  advantages  of  maintain 
ing  the  healthy  action  of  the  skin,  I  must  not  be 
supposed  to  ascribe  the  whole  benefit  to  that  cir- 
cumstance alone.  So  beautifully  is  the  animal 
economy  constituted,  that  it  is  impossible  to  use 
rational  means  for  the  invigoration  of  one  organ  or 
function,  without  good  being  done  to  all ;  and  so 
closely  are  the  various  parts  allied  to  each  other, 
that,  to  describe  fully  the  functions  and  sympathies 
of  any  one,  we  would  require  to  make  the  circle  of 


86  SKIN   NOT   TO    BE 

the  whole.  From  this  appears  the  fallacy  of  those 
who  select  the  derangements  of  any  one  organ  as 
the  origin  and  source  of  all  existing  diseases.  Some 
functions  are  no  doubt  more  important,  and  their 
disorders  exercise  a  wider  influence  over  the  gene- 
ral health  than  others  ;  but  no  one  who  knows  the 
structure  of  the  human  body  and  the  relations  of  its 
parts,  or  has  carefully  observed  the  phenomena  of 
disease,  can  be  satisfied  with  such  exclusive  reason- 
ing. The  stomach,  the  bowels,  the  liver,  and  the 
nervous  system  have  each  had  their  patrons,  and 
the  derangement  of  each  has  been  specially  held 
out  as  the  grand  fountain  of  human  misery.  Each 
doctrine,  too,  has  been  demonstrated,  by  cases  and 
cures,  to  be  superior  to  all  the  rest,  and  each  has 
proved  successful  in  its  turn,  where  the  others  had 
been  tried  and  failed.  Far,  however,  from  proving 
the  propriety  of  exclusiveness  in  favour  of  any  one 
argan,  such  facts,  rightly  considered,  demonstrate 
the  reverse,  and  show  that  successful  practice  re- 
quires views  and  remedies  founded  on  a  careful 
examination  of  every  function ;  and  afford  a  strong 
presumption  that  the  man  who  traces  every  illness 
to  the  liver,  the  stomach,  or  the  nerves  will  be  at 
least  as  often  strikingly  wrong,  as  strikingly  right. 

In  saying,  therefore,  that  attention  to  the  state  of 
the  skin  is  influential  in  preserving  and  restoring 
health,  we  wish  to  represent  it  as  an  important,  but 
by  no  means  exclusive  condition,  and  to  ascribe  to 
the  means  used  for  invigorating  its  functions  their 
due  share  of  action  upon  other  organs  and  functions. 
Sailing,  for  example,  is  useful  in  pulmonary  com- 
plaints, not  only  because  its  accompanying  nausea 
causes  a  healthful  flow  of  blood  from  the  internal 
parts  to  the  surface,  but  because  the  gentle  and 
constant  exercise  occasioned  by  the  movement  of 
the  ship  is  admirably  adapted  to  a  debilitated  state 
of  the  system,  when  other  exercise  cannot  be  taken 
without  hurrying  the  breathing  or  inducing  fatigue  ; 


EXCLUSIVELY   ATTENDED    TO.  87 

and  because  pure,  fresh,  bracing  air  is  of  infinite 
importance  in  all,  and  especially  in  pulmonary  af- 
fections. Attention  to  the  skin  must,  therefore, 
never  be  considered  for  a  moment  as  superseding 
attention  to  the  other  functions.  That  were  a  per- 
nicious mistake.  It  must  be  regarded  as  a  part 
only,  though  an  important  part,  of  a  rational  and 
consistent  treatment,  and  its  efficacy  will  often  de- 
pend, in  no  small  degree,  on  the  care  which  is  taken 
to  support  its  effects  by  a  scrupulous  attention  to 
the  necessities  of  the  rest  of  the  system. 

When  these  pages  were  passing  through  the  press 
in  the  form  in  which  their  substance  first  appeared 
in  a  periodical  journal,  I  was  surprised  and  gratified 
on  seeing  a  work  advertised,  on  the  same  subject 
and  with  almost  the  same  title,  by  Dr.  Wood  of 
Newry.  On  afterward  procuring  the  book,  I  was 
much  pleased  to  perceive  the  extent  to  which  our 
views  harmonized,  and  to  find  that  Dr.  Wood,  as 
well  as  myself,  had  felt  the  want  of  popular  informa- 
tion on  the  functions  of  the  animal  economy,  and 
come  to  the  conclusion,  that,  even  by  medical  men, 
the  influence  of  the  skin  on  the  general  health  and 
in  the  treatment  of  disease  is  too  much  overlooked. 


88  STRUCTURE  AND  ATTACHMENTS  OF  MUSCLES. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Muscles—Their  Structure,  Attachments,  and  Conditions  of  Ac- 
tion — Necessity  of  Arterial  Blood  and  of  Nervous  Influence — 
Illustrations — Muscles  act  by  alternate  Contraction  and  Re- 
laxation— Fatigue  consequent  on  continuing  the  same  Attitude 
explained— Injuries  of  Spine  from  Neglect  of  this  Law,  and 
from  sedentary  Occupations  in  School— The  Mind  ought  to  be 
engaged  in  Exercise  as  well  as  the  Body — Superiority  of 
cheerful  Play  and  amusing  Games — A  dull  Walk  the  least 
useful  Exercise — Influence  of  Mental  Stimulus  illustrated  by 
Examples — Exercise  to  be  proportioned  to  Strength — Laws 
of  Exercise. 

HAVING  examined  the  nature  and  uses  of  the  skin, 
we  may  next  proceed  to  consider  the  important 
system  of  organs,  lying  almost  immediately  under 
it,  viz.  the  Muscles ;  ^hich,  although  in  constant 
activity  during  our  waking  hours,  and  of  indispen- 
sable necessity  to  man  in  every  movement  which  he 
makes,  are  perhaps  less  familiarly  known  than 
almost  any  other  part  of  the  body.  As  the  study  of 
the  muscular  system  involves  an  exposition  of  the 
principles  which  ought  to  regulate  exercise,  it  can 
scarcely  fail  to  excite  the  attention  of  the  general 
reader,  and  especially  of  those  who,  as  parents  or 
teachers,  are  interested  in  the  education  of  the 
young. 

The  muscles  are  those  distinct  and  compact  bun- 
dles of  fleshy  fibres  which  are  found  in  animals  im- 
mediately on  removing  the  skin  and  subjacent  fat; 
and  which,  although  perhaps  not  known  to  all  under 
their  generic  or  scientific  name,  are  familiar  to 
every  one  as  constituting  the  red  fleshy  part  of 
meat. 

Every  muscle,  or  separate  bundle  of  fleshy  sub- 
stance, is  composed  of  innumerable  small  fibres  or 


STRUCTURE  AND  ATTACHMENTS  OF  MUSCLES.  89 

threads,  each  separated  from,  and  at  the  same  time 
loosely  connected  with,  the  others  by  a  sheath  of 
cellular  membrane,  enveloping  it,  but  which  is  so 
thin  as  not  to  obscure  the  colour  of  the  fibre,  or 
attract  notice  unless  specially  looked  for.  Each 
muscle  is  in  its  turn  separated  from  the  neighbour- 
ing muscles  by  thicker  layers  or  sheaths  of  the  same 
membrane,  in  some  of  the  cells  of  which  fat  is  de- 
posited, especially  where  the  interval  between  the 
muscles  is  considerable  ;  and  hence  the  elegantly 
rounded  form  of  the  limbs,  which  without  this  fat 
would  present  the  rigid,  sharp,  and  prominent  out- 
line which  we  see  occasionally  in  strong  persons  of 
a  spare  habit  of  body.  From  the  loose  texture  of 
the  connecting  cellular  membrane,  the  muscles 
enjoy  perfect  freedom  of  motion  during  life,  and 
admit  of  being  easily  separated  from  each  other  after 
death,  either  by  the  knife,  or  by  simply  tearing  the 
cellular  tissue. 

Muscles,  speaking  generally,  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts,  of  which  the  middle  fleshy  portion, 
called  the  belly,  is  the  most  conspicuous  and  im- 
portant. The  other  two  are  the  opposite  ends, 
commonly  called  the  origin  and  insertion  of  the 
muscle.  The  belly  is  the  bulky  and  fleshy  part,  by 
the  contraction  or  shortening  of  the  fibres  of  which 
the  two  ends  are  brought  nearer  to  each  other,  while 
the  belly  itself  swells  out  in  a  lateral  direction. 
When  we  attempt  to  lift  a  heavy  weight  in  the  hand, 
or  to  overcome  any  resistance,  the  muscles  which 
bend  the  arm  may  be  seen  and  felt  to  start  out,  rigid 
and  well  defined  in  their  whole  extent,  while  their 
extremities  tend  powerfully  to  approach  each  other, 
and  of  course  to  carry  along  with  them  the  bones 
to  which  they  are  attached.  In  consequence  of  this 
tendency,  if  the  weight  be  unexpectedly  knocked 
out  of  the  hand  before  we  have  time  to  obviate  the 
result,  the  muscles,  having  then  no  resistance  to 
overcome,  will  contract  violently,  and  throw  the 
H2 


90  STRUCTURE  AND  ATTACHMENTS  OF  MUSCLES. 

hand  up  with  a  sudden  jerk.  Voluntary  motion  is, 
in  fact,  effected  by  the  contraction  of  muscles  acting 
upon  and  changing  the  relative  positions  of  the 
bones  or  solid  support  of  the  system,  and  therefore 
almost  all  muscles  are  attached  to  one  bone  by  their 
origin,  and  to  another  by  their  insertion ;  the  former 
being  merely  the  fixed  extremity,  towards  which  the 
opposite  and  more  moveable  end,  called  the  insertion, 
is  carried  by  the  shortening  of  the  intervening  belly 
of  the  muscle. 


The  figure  represents  the  bones  of  the  arm  and  hand,  having 
all  the  soft  parts  dissected  off  except  one  muscle  OBI,  of 
which  the  function  is  to  bend  the  arm.  O  the  origin  of  the 
muscle.  B  the  belly.  1  the  insertion.  T  T  the  tendons? 
S  the  shoulder-joint.  E  the  elbow.  When  the  belly  con- 
tracts, the  lower  extremity  of  the  muscle,  I,  is  brought 
nearer  to  the  origin  or  fixed  point  O,  and,  by  thus  bending 
the  arm  at  the  elbow-joint,  raises  up  the  weight  W  placed 
in  the  hand. 

If  the  muscles  must  be  attached  to  bones,  it  may 
be  asked, — how  can  the  bones,  which  present  com- 
paratively so  small  a  surface,  afford  space  enough 
for  the  attachments  of  muscles,  which  are  so  much 
larger,  and  which  even  appear  in  successive  layers 
above  each  other  1  This  difficulty  is  obviated  in 
two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  the  heads  and  other 
parts  of  bones  to  which  muscles  are  attached  are 


NATURE    OF   THE    MUSCLES.  91 

enlarged  so  as  to  present  a  greater  surface  than  the 
body  of  the  bone,  and  form  what  are  called  processes, 
for  the  obvious  purpose  of  affording  greater  room  ; 
and,  secondly,  instead  of  all  the  fleshy  fibres  of  a 
muscle  being  prolonged  to  its  points  of  attachment 
at  the  bone,  they,  with  few  exceptions,  terminate 
gradually,  as  they  proceed  from  the  belly,  in  a  white 
shining  tendon,  of  a  much  smaller  size  than  the 
muscle,  but  of  great  strength,  which  is  inserted  into 
the  bone.  These  tendons,  or  sinews  as  they  are 
occasionally  named,  conduce  greatly  to  symmetry, 
elegance,  and  freedom  of  motion  ;  and  may  be  traced 
under  the  skin  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  in  the 
very  powerful  specimen  at  the  heel,  called  the  ten- 
don of  Achilles.  The  hamstrings  are  another  ob- 
vious example,  and  may  be  easily  felt  becoming 
tight  when  an  effort  is  made  to  bend  the  knee. 
There  are  a  few  muscles  not  attached  to  bones  by 
either  extremity,  and  also  a  few  which  have  no  ten- 
dons. Those  which  surround  the  eyebrows,  the 
mouth,  the  gullet,  and  some  of  the  other  natural 
passages  are  of  the  former  description ;  as  is  also 
the  heart.  Some  of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  have 
no  tendons,  but  these  are  few  in  number,  and  may 
at  present  be  considered  exceptions  to  the  general 
rule. 

In  man,  and  in  most  of  the  animals  with  which 
we  are  familiar,  the  muscles  are  of  a  red  colour. 
This,  however,  depends  entirely  on  the  blood  which 
they  contain ;  for  so  far  is  the  colour  from  being 
essential  to  their  constitution,  that  it  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  washing  out  the  blood  which  produces 
it,  the  muscular  substance  remaining  in  other  re- 
spects unchanged.  Hence  the  colour  of  the  muscles 
varies  with  that  of  the  blood, — is  dark  where  it  is 
dark,  pale  where  it  is  pale,  and  white  where  it  is 
white.  The  true  characteristic  of  muscular  fibre 
is  contractility,  or  the  power  of  shortening  its  substance 


92  DIRECTION   OF  MtTSCLES. 

on  the  application  of  stimuli,  and  again  relaxing  when 
the  stimulus  is  withdrawn. 

The  direction  in  which  the  fleshy  fibres  run  de- 
termines the  direction  of  the  motion  effected  by 
their  contraction.  In  some  muscles  the  fibres  are 
nearly  parallel,  and  act  consequently  in  a  straight 
line.  In  others  they  run  obliquely,  producing  a  cor- 
responding obliquity  of  motion  ;  while  in  others  they 
are  disposed  like  feathers  in  relation  to  a  quill,  and 
are,  therefore,  styled  penniform.  A  few  are  cir- 
cularly disposed  round  openings,  and  contract 
towards  a  common  centre,  like  the  mouth  of  a  purse 
closed  by  its  strings.  When  the  direction  varies,  it 
is  always  to  effect  a  particular  kind  of  action.  Re- 
markable contrivances  appear  for  this  end :  one 
muscle  of  the  lower  jaw,  for  example,  is  divided  into 
two  distinct  fleshy  bellies  by  an  intermediate  thin 
strong  tendon,  which  passes  through  and  plays  in  a 
pulley  adapted  for  its  reception ;  its  two  portions 
being  by  this  means  enabled  to  operate  with  full 
effect  almost  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  A  sim- 
ilar arrangement  is  found  in  the  trochlearis  or  pulley- 
muscle  of  the  eyeball ;  and  modifications  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind  occur  in  other  muscles,  as  in  those  of 
the  fingers  and  toes,  wherever  a  particular  object  is 
to  be  accomplished. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  muscles  is  obviously  to 
enable  us  to  carry  into  effect  the  various  resolutions 
and  designs — or  volitions,  as  they  are  termed  by 
philosophers — which  have  been  formed  by  the  mind. 
But  while  fulfilling  this  grand  object,  their  active 
exercise  is  at  the  same  time  highly  conducive  to 
the  well-being  of  many  other  important  functions. 
By  muscular  contraction,  the  blood  is  gentty  as- 
sisted in  its  course  through  the  smaller  vessels  and 
more  distant  parts  of  the  body,  and  its  undue  accu- 
mulation in  the  internal  organs  is  prevented.  The 
important  processes  of  digestion,  respiration,  secre- 
tion, absorption,  and  nutrition  are  promoted,  and 


CONDITIONS    OF    MUSCULAR    ACTION.  Q3 

the  health  of  the  whole  body  immediately  influ- 
enced. The  mind  itself  is  exhilarated  or  depressed 
by  the  proper  or  improper  use  of  muscular  exercise ; 
and  it  thus  becomes  a  point  of  no  slight  importance 
to  establish  general  principles  by  which  that  exercise 
may  be  regulated. 

The  first  requisite  for  healthy  and  vigorous  mus- 
cular action  is  the  possession  of  strong  and  healthy 
muscular  fibres.  In  every  part  of  the  animal  econ- 
omy, the  muscles  are  proportionate  in  size  and 
structure  to  the  efforts  required  from  them ;  and  it 
is  a  law  of  nature,  that  whenever  a  muscle  is  called 
into  frequent  use,  its  fibres  increase  in  thickness 
within  certain  limits,  and  become  capable  of  acting 
with  greater  force  and  readiness  ;  and  that,  on  the 
other  hand,  when  a  muscle  is  little  used,  its  volume 
and  power  decrease  in  a  corresponding  degree. 
When  in  a  state  of  activity,  the  quantity  of  blood 
which  muscles  receive  is  considerably  increased ; 
and,  in  consequence,  those  which  are  much  exer- 
cised become  of  a  deeper  red  colour  than  those 
which  are  less  used.  The  reason  of  this  will  be 
evident,  when  we  recollect  that  to  every  organ  of 
the  body  arterial  blood  is  an  indispensable  stimulus, 
and  that  its  supply  is,  during  health,  always  propor- 
tioned to  the  extent  and  energy  of  the  action.  When 
any  part,  therefore,  is  stinted  of  its  usual  quantity  of 
blood,  it  very  soon  becomes  weakened,  and  at  last 
loses  the  power  of  action,  although  every  other  con- 
dition required  for  its  performance  may  remain  un- 
impaired. 

It  is  the  infringement  of  this  condition  that  entails 
so  much  misery  upon  our  young  manufacturing  popu- 
lation, and  even  upon  many  of  the  inmates  of  our 
boarding-schools.  Wasted  by  excessive  labour, 
long  confinement,  and  miserable  diet,  the  muscular 
system  is  stinted  in  growth,  and  weakened  in  struc- 
ture ;  and  the  blood,  impoverished  by  insufficiency 
of  nourishing  food  and  by  a  vitiated  atmosphere,  is 


94  CONDITIONS    OF    MUSCULAR   ACTION. 

no  longer  capable  of  repairing  the  waste  consequent 
upon  exercise,  or  of  affording  a  healthy  stimulus  to 
the  vessels  and  nerves  which  animate  the  muscles. 
Languor,  debility,  and  exhaustion  of  mind  necessa- 
rily follow ;  and  the  individual  is  left  susceptible  of 
no  stimulus  but  that  of  ardent  spirits  or  of  excited 
or  reckless  passion. 

In  youth,  not  only  must  the  waste  of  materials  be 
replaced,  but  an  excess  of  nourishment  must  be 
provided,  to  admit  of  the  continued  growth  which 
is  the  chief  function  of  our  earlier  years.  If  this  be 
denied,  the  development  of  the  bodily  organs  often 
receives  a  check  which  no  subsequent  treatment 
can  remedy,  and  a  foundation  is  laid  for  diseases 
of  debility  which  afterward  imbitter  and  endanger 
life.  From  pretty  extensive  inquiry,  I  am  satisfied 
that  in  boarding-schools,  especially  for  females,  this 
important  principle  is  often  disregarded  ;  while  the 
conductors  are  at  the  same  time  without  the  least 
suspicion  of  the  evil  they  are  producing,  and  even 
take  credit  to  themselves  for  only  checking  sensual 
appetites,  and  promoting  temperance  in  eating  as 
well  as  in  drinking.  Youth  requires  the  best  and 
most  nutritious  food,  and  such  ought  regularly  to 
be  provided.  Weak  broth,  twice-cooked  hashes, 
and  quantities  of  vegetables  and  watery  milk,  are 
not  sufficient  sustenance  for  a  young  and  growing 
frame.  Can  we  be  surprised  that,  with  such  a  diet, 
,  worm-powders  and  stomachic  medicines  are  in  con- 
stant demand,  and  that,  even  with  the  assistance 
of  these,  the  girl  shoots  up  thin,  pale,  and  fleshless  ? 
Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  I  wish  to  make  a  god 
of  the  belly :  my  object  is  the  reverse  of  this,  and  I 
am  sure  that  no  better  means  can  be  used  to  effect 
it  than  to  give  a  sufficiency  (not  an  excess)  of  whole- 
some and  nourishing  food,  which  alone  will  satisfy 
the  stomach,  and  obviate  the  constant  craving 
which  is  a  frequent  and  painful  concomitant  of  de- 
ficiency of  food.  Let  it  be  considered  how  soon,  in 


CONDITIONS    OF    MUSCULAR    ACTION.  95 

cases  of  shipwreck  for  example,  men  previously 
Wt;ll  fed  are  wasted  away  by  bodily  labour  when 
deprived  of  a  full  allowance  of  food,  and  it  will  not 
be  difficult  to  form  some  conception  of  the  import- 
ance of  this  condition  to  the  well-being  of  the  mus- 
cular  system. 

Something  more  than  mere  muscle,  however,  is 
required  for  the  production  of  regulated  or  volun- 
tary motion.  The  muscle  itself,  though  perfect  in 
strength  and  in  structure,  would  otherwise  remain 
inert.  A  stimulus  is  required  to  put  it  into  activity, 
and  to  direct  its  contraction ;  and  this  stimulus  is 
conveyed  to  it  by  the  nerves.  As  we  write,  the 
muscles  which  move  the  fingers  and  guide  the  per 
obviously  follow  the  commands  of  the  will ;  and  th€ 
moment  the  will  is  withdrawn  they  cease  to  oper- 
ate. If  the  will  be  feeble  and  undecided,  the  mus- 
cular movements  will  be  equally  weak  and  irreso- 
lute ;  whereas,  if  the  mind  be  powerfully  excited 
and  the  will  energetic,  strength,  rapidity,  and  deci- 
sion will  equally  characterize  all  the  "movements 
of  the  body.  Under  the  intense  excitement  and 
headlong  fury  of  madness,  the  muscular  action  of  an 
otherwise  feeble  man  acquires  a  force  often  ex- 
ceeding all  our  powers  of  control. 

It  will  be  at  once  perceived  from  this  description, 
that,  in  effecting  voluntary  motion,  we  must  have 
in  operation,  first,  The  brain,  or  organ  of  mind,  as 
the  source  of  the  will ;  secondly,  The  nerves,  which 
convey  the  intimations  of  the  will  to  the  muscles ; 
and,  thirdly,  The  muscles  themselves,  by  whose 
contractile  powers  motion  is  produced.  It  will  be 
understood,  also,  why  the  number  and  size  of  the 
nerves  distributed  to  a  muscle  are  in  proportion,  not 
simply  to  its  volume,  but  to  the  variety,  frequency, 
and  vivacity  of  the  movements  required  from  it ; 
and  why  some  small  muscles  employed  in  many 
combinations  are  therefore  supplied  with  a  greater 


96  INFLUENCE    OF   NERVES 

variety  of  nerves  than  others  double  their  size,  but 
with  more  simple  functions. 

Muscular  power  is  (other  circumstances  being 
equal)  proportioned  ta  the  size  of  the  muscle ;  but 
it  often  happens  that  great  power  is  required  where 
bulk  of  muscle  would  be  inconvenient  or  cumber- 
some. In  such  cases,  it  is  supplied  with  an  in- 
creased endowment  of  nervous  filaments,  which 
make  up  by  the  strength  of  stimulus  what  the  mus- 
cle wants  in  bulk  of  fibre.  Many  birds,  for  example, 
require  great  muscular  power  to  sustain  them  in 
their  long  and  rapid  flights  through  the  air,  and  owe 
its  possession  chiefly  to  the  strong  stimulus  im- 
parted to  moderate-sized  muscles  by  large  nerves, 
which  add  nothing,  or  next  to  nothing,  to  their 
weight ;  whereas,  had  the  greater  power  been  ob- 
tainable only  from  an  augmentation  of  fleshy  fibres, 
the  consequent  addition  of  weight  would,  from  the 
greatly  increased  difficulty  the  animal  must  have 
felt  in  raising  and  sustaining  itself  in  the  air,  have 
gone  far  to  counterbalance  any  advantage  gained  on 
the  side  of  power.  But  in  fishes,  which  float  with- 
out effort  in  their  own  element,  size  produces  no 
such  inconvenience,  and  their  strength,  accordingly, 
is  made  to  depend  more  on  the  volume  of  the  mus- 
cle than  on  its  nervous  endowment, — showing  a 
beautiful  adaptation  to  the  mode  of  life  and  wants 
of  the  animal. 

As  voluntary  motion  depends  as  much  on  nervous 
stimulus  as  on  muscular  agency,  it  happens  that 
whatever  interrupts  the  action  of  the  nerves  puts  a 
stop  to  motion  as  effectually  as  if  the  muscular  fibre 
itself  were  divided.  Injuries  and  diseases  of  the 
brain,  whence  the  will  emanates,  are  well  known  to 
be  accompanied  with  palsy,  or  want  of  power  in  the 
muscles,  although  in  their  own  structure  the  latter 
remain  sound.  Sleep  and  narcotics,  too,  suspend 
voluntary  motion,  solely  in  consequence  of  their 
action  on  the  nervous  system.  Ardent  spirits,  in 


ON    MUSCULAR   ACTION. 


97 


like  manner,  disturb  the  regularity  of  muscular  ac- 
tion, solely  by  previously  disordering  the  brain ;  and 

hence  the  unsteady 
gait  and  faltering 
elocution  of  a  se- 
mi-intoxicated per- 
son are  sometimes 
removed  in  an  in- 
stant by  some  pow- 
erful mental  im- 
pression being  sud- 
denly made,  suffi- 
cient to  restore  the 
brain  to  its  natural 
state,  and  thereby 
to  give  unity  and 
steadiness  to  the 
nervous  impulse 
proceeding  from  it 
to  the  muscles. — 
For  the  same  rea- 
son, although  the 
brain  and  muscles 
be  perfectly  sound, 
yet  if  the  commu- 
nication between 
them  be  impaired 
or  destroyed  by 
the  compression 
or  division  of  the 
nerves,  the  mus- 
cles cease  to  act. 
The  muscles  of 
the  human  body 
are  upwards  of  400 
in  number,  and 
form  several  lay- 
ers lying  over  each 


98  INFLUENCE    OF    NERVES 

other.  That  some  conception  may  be  formed  of 
their  arrangement  and  distribution,  the  superficial 
layer,  or  that  which  appears  immediately  on  re- 
moving the  skin,  is  represented  in  the  annexed 
woodcut,  taken  from  a  little  volume  entitled  "  The 
Physician,"  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffu- 
sion of  Useful  Knowledge.  To  understand  tl  e  uses 
of  the  various  muscles,  the  reader  has  only  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  object  of  muscular  contraction  is 
simply  to  bring  the  two  ends  of  the  muscle  and  the 
parts  to  which  they  are  attached  nearer  to  each 
other,  the  more  moveable  being  always  carried  to- 
wards the  more  fixed  point.  Thus,  when  the  sterna- 
mastoid  muscle  f  g  contracts,  its  extremities  approx- 
imate, and  the  head  being  the  moveable  point,  it  is 
pulled  down  and  turned  to  one  side.  This  may  be 
easily  seen  in  the  living  subject,  the  muscle  being 
not  less  conspicuous  than  beautiful  in  its  outline. 
Again,  when  the  powerful  rectus  or  straight  muscle 
b  on  the  front  of  the  thigh  contracts  with  force,  as 
in  the  act  of  kicking,  its  lower  end  attached  to  the 
knee-pan  and  leg  tends  to  approximate  to  the  upper 
or  more  fixed  point,  and  pulls  the  leg  strongly  for- 
wards. This  occurs  in  walking.  But  when  the 
sartorius  or  tailors'  muscle  c  is  put  in  action,  its 
course  being  oblique,  the  movement  of  the  leg  is  no 
longer  in  the  straight  line,  but  in  a  cross  direction 
like  that  in  which  tailors  sit,  and  hence  the  name 
sartorius. 

Another  variety  of  effect  occurs  when,  as  in  the 
rectus,  or  straight  muscle  of  the  belly  i  i,  sometimes 
one  end  and  sometimes  both  are  the  fixed  points. 
When  the  lower  end  is  fixed,  the  muscle  bends  the 
body  forward  and  pulls  down  the  bones  of  the  chest. 
When,  as  more  rarely  happens,  the  lower  end  is  the 
moveable  point,  the  effect  is  to  bring  forward  and 
raise  the  pelvis  and  inferior  extremities ;  and  when 
both  ends  are  rendered  immoveable,  the  contraction 
of  the  muscle  tends  to  compress  and  diminish  the 


ON   M OSCULAR   ACTION.  99 

size  of  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  and  thus  not  only 
assists  the  natural  evacuations,  but  co-operates  in 
the  function  of  respiration. 

In  contemplating  this  arrangement,  it  is  impossi- 
ble not  to  be  struck  with  the  consummate  skill  with 
which  every  act  of  every  organ  is  turned  to  account. 
When  the  chest  is  expanded  by  a  full  inspiration,  the 
bowels  are  pushed  downwards  and  forwards  to  make 
way  for  the  lungs ;  when  the  air  is  again  expelled, 
and  the  cavity  of  the  chest  diminished,  the  very 
muscles  i  i  t,  which  effect  this  by  pulling  down  the 
ribs,  contract  upon  the  bowels  also,  and  push  them 
upwards  and  inwards,  as  can  be  plainly  perceived 
by  any  one  who  attends  to  his  own  breathing.  By 
this  contrivance,  a  gentle  and  constant  impulse  is 
given  to  the  stomach  and  bowels,  which  is  of  great 
importance  to  them  in  contributing  to  digestion  and 
in  propelling  their  contents ;  and  One  cause  of  the 
costiveness  with  which  sedentary  people  are  so 
habitually  annoyed  is  the  diminution  of  this  natural 
motion  in  consequence  of  bodily  inactivity. 

From  the  preceding  exposition,  the  action  of  the 
muscles  a,  k,  /,  which  bend  the  arm  and  forearm, 
will  be  easily  understood,  and  some  notion  may  be 
formed  of  the  innumerable  combinations  into  which 
a  system  composed  of  upwards  of  400  pieces  may 
be  thrown,  in  effecting  all  the  movements  required 
from  the  human  frame.  In  some  of  the  operations 
in  which  we  engage,  nearly  the  whole,  and  in  others 
only  a  part,  of  the  muscles  are  thrown  into  action 
at  one  time.  The  simultaneousness  of  action  which 
obtains  in  such  instances,  and  which  occurs  in 
almost  every  act  of  life,  however  simple,  and  with- 
out which  no  dictate  of  the  will  could  be  harmoni- 
ously and  successfully  obeyed,  depends  solely  on 
the  distribution  and  connexions  of  the  nerves  which 
animate  the  muscles.  Every  individual  fibre  of 
every  muscle  is  supplied  with  nervous  filaments,  and 
different  fibres  of  the  same  muscle  are  indebted  for 


100  INFLUENCE    OF   NERVES 

the  simultaneousness  of  their  excitement  to  the  con- 
nexion established  between  each  of  them  by  these 
filaments.  Wherever  many  muscles  combine  to 
execute  an  important  movement,  they  are  uniformly 
found  to  be  provided  with,  and  connected  by, 
branches  from  the  same  system  of  nerves ;  as,  with- 
out this  means,  simultaneousness  of  action  could  not 
be  ensured.  Thus  the  muscles  which  cover  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest  co-operate  in  the  voluntary 
movements  of  the  arm,  and  at  the  same  time  in  the 
respiratory  movements  of  the  chest ;  but  these, 
being  two  distinct  purposes,  require  different  com- 
binations of  the  muscles  among  themselves.  To 
effect  these  combinations,  two  sets  of  nerves  are 
provided,  as  has  been  shown  by  Sir  Charles  Bell ; 
the  one  regulating  the  respiratory,,  and  the  other  the 
purely  voluntary  movements  of  the  muscles.  This 
is  the  true  reason  why  the  same  muscle  sometimes 
receives  nerves  from  two  or  three  different  quarters ; 
a  circumstance  which,  before  the  principle  was  dis- 
covered, and  when  all  nerves  were  considered  alike, 
was  altogether  inexplicable,  and  seemed  a  work  of 
mere  supererogation. 

The  influence  of  the  nervous  agency  may  be  still 
further  illustrated.  When  the  trunk  of  a  muscular 
nerve  is  irritated  by  the  contact  of  an  external  body, 
or  by  the  electric  spark,  the  muscles  which  it  supplies 
instantly  contract,  but  without  either  harmony  or 
permanency  of  action:  the  contraction  is  like  the 
violent  and  ill-regulated  start  of  convulsion.  It  is 
the  influence  of  the  brain  and  mind  in  the  equal  dif- 
fusion of  the  required  stimulus  to  each  muscle,  in 
the  exact  proportion  needful,  that  characterizes 
healthy  and  sustained  voluntary  motion,  as  opposed 
to  the  irregular  convulsive  start.  Nothing  can  be 
more  wonderful  than  the  accuracy  with  which,  in 
the  most  delicate  movements,  this  stimulus  is  ad- 
justed and  apportioned  to  such  a  variety  of  parts, 
particularly  where  practice,  or,  in  other  words,  edu- 


ON   MUSCULAR    ACTION,  101 

cation,  has  rendered  the  combination  of  powers 
easy  and  certain.  Not  to  mention  the  more  obvious 
and  graceful  movements  of  dancing,  fencing,  and 
riding,  we  discover,  in  the  management  of  the  hand 
and  fingers  by  engravers,  sculptors,  watchmakers, 
jugglers,  and  other  artists  and  mechanics,  a  minute 
accuracy  of  muscular  adjustment  to  effect  a  given 
end,  which  is  the  more  surprising  the  more  we 
consider  the  complicated  means  by  which  it  is 
effected. 

In  consequence  of  the  co-operation  of  both  nerve 
and  muscular  fibre  being  required  to  effect  motion, 
excess  of  action  in  each  is  followed  by  results  pecu- 
liar to  -itself.  If  the  NERVES  preponderate,  either 
constitutionally  or  from  over-exercise, — as  they  are 
apt  to  do  in  highly  nervous  temperaments, — their 
excessive  irritability  renders  them  liable  to  be  un- 
duly excited  by  ordinary  stimuli ;  and  hence,  as  in 
hysteric  and  nervous  females,  a  proneness  to  sudden 
starts,  cramps,  and  convulsions,  from  causes  which 
would  scarcely  affect  an  individual  differently  con- 
stituted. Such  persons  have  little  muscular  power, 
except  under  excitement ;  they  then  become  capable 
of  great  efforts,  of  short  duration,  but  sink  propor- 
tionally low  when  the  stimulus  is  past.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  MUSCLES  predominate,  as  in  athletic 
strong-built  men,  the  nervous  system  is  generally 
dull  and  little  susceptible  of  excitement,  and  the 
muscles  which  it  animates  are  consequently  little 
prone  to  the  rapid  and  vivacious  action  which  ac- 
companies the  predominance  of  the  nervous  func 
tions.  Great  strength  and  capability  of  bodily  labour 
are  then  the  characteristics. 

Great  muscular  power  and  intense  nervous  action 
are  rarely  conjoined  in  the  same  individual ;  but 
when  they  do  happen  to  meet,  they  constitute  a  per- 
fect genius  for  muscular  exertion,  and  enable  their 
possessor  to  perform  feats  of  strength  and  agility 
which  appear  marvellous  to  those  who  are  deficient 
19 


102  INFLUENCE    OF    NERVES 

in  either  condition.  The  most  successful  wrestlers 
and  gladiators  among  the  ancients  seem  to  have 
owed  their  superiority  chiefly  to  the  possession  of 
both  endowments  in  a  high  degree  ;  and  among  the 
moderns,  the  most  remarkable  combination  of  the 
two  qualities  is  exhibited  by  some  of  our  harlequins, 
clowns,  rope-dancers,  and  equestrian  performers, 
and  also  by  those  who  display  their  strength  and 
power  of  equilibrium  by  balancing  wheels,  ladders, 
or  other  heavy  bodies,  on  the  chin  ;  and  whose  per- 
formances require  from  the  small  muscles  of  the 
jaw  and  neck  a  force  of  contraction  which,  when 
reduced  to  calculation,  almost  exceeds  belief.  Bel- 
zoni  combined  both  conditions  in  a  high  degree. 

From  the  general  resemblance  which  character- 
izes the  different  nerves,  a  similarity  of  function 
was  long  ascribed  to  them  all,  and  no  explanation 
could  be  given  why  one  muscle  sometimes  received 
filaments  from  a  variety  of  nervous  trunks.  Re- 
cently, however,  the  labours  of  Sir  Charles  Bell 
and  Magendie  have  clearly  established,  that,  in 
such  cases,  each  nerve  serves  a  distinct  purpose,  in 
combining  the  movements  of  the  particular  muscle 
with  those  of  others  necessary  to  effect  a  given  end, 
— and  that  without  this  additional  nerve  such  a  com- 
bination could  not  have  been  produced.  The  mus- 
cular nerves  must  not  be  confounded  with  those 
which  we  have  seen  ramified  on  the  skin  for  the 
purposes  of  sensation.  The  former  are  provided 
for  the  purposes  of  motion  and  not  of  feeling,  and 
hence  muscles  may  be  cut  or  injured  with  little  pain, 
compared  to  what  is  felt  by  the  skin.  Weariness  is 
the  kind  of  sensation  recognised  by  the  muscular 
nerves. 

So  uniformly  is  a  separate  instrument  provided 
for  every  additional  function,  that  there  is  every 
reason  to  regard  the  muscular  nerves,  although  run- 
ning in  one  sheath,  as  in  reality  double,  and  per- 
forming distinct  functions.  Sir  Charles  Bell  has 


ON   MUSCULAR   ACTION.  103 

the  merit  of  this  discovery,  if  such  it  shall  ulti- 
mately prove  to  be.  In  his  work  on  the  Nervous 
System,  he  endeavours  to  show,  that  one  set  of 
nervous  fibres  conveys  the  mandate  from  the  brain 
to  the  muscle,  and  excites  the  contraction ;  and  that 
another  conveys  from  the  muscle  to  the  brain  the 
peculiar  sense  of  the  state  of  the  muscle,  by  which 
we  judge  of  the  fitness  of  the  degree  of  contraction 
which  has  been  produced  to  accomplish  the  end 
desired,  and  which  is  obviously  an  indispensable 
piece  of  information  to  the  mind  in  regulating  the 
movements  of  the  body.  Sir  Charles  has  shown, 
that  many  of  the  sensations  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  sense  of  touch  and  the  skin,  arise  from  the 
muscular  sense,  and  are  wholly  imperceptible  to 
the  skin,  without  the  co-operation  of  muscular  con- 
traction. 

"  The  muscles  have  two  nerves,"  says  Sir  Charles, 
"  which  fact  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed,  because 
they  are  commonly  bound  up  together.  But  when- 
ever the  nerves,  as  about  the  head,  go  in  a  separate 
course,  we  find  that  there  is  a  sensitive  nerve  and  a 
motor  nerve  distributed  to  the  muscular  fibre,  and 
we  have  reason  to  conclude  that  those  branches  of 
the  spinal  nerves  which  go  to  the  muscles  consist  of 
a  motor  and  a  sensitive  filament. 

"  It  has  been  supposed  hitherto,  that  the  office  of 
a  muscular  nerve  is  only  to  carry  out  the  mandate 
of  the  will,  and  to  excite  the  muscle  to  action,  but 
this  betrays  a  very  inaccurate  knowledge  of  the 
action  of  the  muscular  system ;  for,  before  the  mus- 
cular svstem  can  be  controlled  under  the  influence 
of  the  will,  there  must  be  a  consciousness  or  know- 
ledge of  the  condition  of  the  muscle. 

*'  When  we  admit  that  the  various  conditions  of 
the  muscle  must  be  estimated  or  perceived,  in  order 
to  be  under  the  due  control  of  the  will,  the  natural 
question  arises,  Is  that  nerve  which  carries  out  the 
mandate  of  the  will  capable  of  conveying,  at  the 


104  NATURE    OF   MUSCULAR    ACTION. 

same  moment,  an  impression  retrograde  to  the 
course  of  that  influence  which  is  going  from  the 
brain  to  the  muscle  ?  If  we  had  no  facts  in  anatomy 
to  proceed  upon,  still  reason  would  declare  to  us 
that  the  same  filament  of  a  nerve  could  not  convey 
a  motion,  of  whatever  nature  that  motion  may  be, 
whether  vibration  or  motion  of  spirits,  in  opposite 
directions  at  the  same  moment  of  time. 

"  1  find  that,  to  the  full  operation  of  the  muscular 
power,  two  distinct  filaments  of  nerves  are  neces- 
sary, and  that  a  circle  is  established  between  the 
sensorium  and  the  muscle  ;  that  one  filament  or 
single  nerve  carries  the  influence  of  the  will  towards 
the  muscle,  which  nerve  has  no  power  to  convey  an 
impression  backwards  to  the  brain ;  and  that  another 
nerve  connects  the  muscle  with  the  brain,  and,  act- 
ing as  a  sentient  nerve,  conveys  the  impression  of 
the  condition  of  the  muscle  to  the  mind,  but  has  no 
operation  in  a  direction  outwards  from  the  brain  to- 
wards the  muscle,  and  does  not  therefore  excite  the 
muscle,  however  irritated."* 

This  consciousness  of  the  state  of  the  muscles,  or 
muscular  sense,  as  it  may  be  truly  called,  is  of  great 
importance  both  to  man  and  to  animals,  as  it  is 
necessarily  by  information  thence  derived  that 
every  subsequent  exertion  is  directed  and  appor- 
tioned in  intensity  to  the  effort  required  to  be  made. 
If  we  had  no  such  sense,  the  delicate  and  well- 
directed  touches  of  the  engraver,  painter,  and  sculp- 
tor, or  of  the  ingenious  mechanic,  would  be  at  the 
mercy  of  hazard  ;  and  a  single  disproportioned  move- 
ment might  ruin  the  successful  labour  of  months, 
supposing  success  in  reality  to  be  compatible  with 
chance.  Without  this  sense,  man  could  not  deliber- 
ately proportion  the  muscular  efforts  to  his  real 
wants ;  and,  even  in  walking,  his  gait  would  be  un- 
steady and  insecure,  because  there  would  be  no 

*  Bell's  Anatomy  seventh  edition.  voL  ii.  p.  372. 


NATURE    OF    MUSCULAR    ACTION.  105 

harmony  between  effort  and  resistance.  The  loss 
of  equilibrium,  and  the  concussion  and  disturbance 
of  the  system  consequent  on  taking  a  false  step,  as 
it  is  called,  are  a  specimen  of  what  we  would  always 
be  subject  to  without  the  guidance  of  the  muscular 
sense.  When  we  imagine  we  have  one  step  more  of 
a  stair  to  descend  than  really  exists,  we  are  placed 
nearly  in  the  same  circumstances  as  if  we  had  no 
muscular  sense  to  direct  the  extent  of  our  intended 
movement ;  because  the  sense  is  then  misled  by  an 
erroneous  impression,  and,  accordingly,  we  make 
an  effort  grievously  unsuited  to  the  occasion :  and 
yet,  so  habitually  are  we  protected  from  this  error 
by  the  assistance  of  the  sense  alluded  to,  and  so 
little  are  we  conscious  of  its  operation,  that  it  is  only 
after  mature  reflection  that  we  perceive  the  neces- 
sity of  its  existence. 

In  chewing  our  food,  in  turning  the  eyes  towards 
an  object  looked  at,  in  raising  the  hand  to  the  mouth, 
and,  in  fact,  in  every  variety  of  muscular  movement 
which  we  perform,  we  are  guided  by  the  muscular 
sense  in  proportioning  the  effort  to  the  resistance  to 
be  overcome ;  and  where  this  harmony  is  destroyed 
by  disease,  the  extent  of  the  service  rendered  us 
becomes  more  apparent.  The  shake  of  the  arm  and 
hand  which  we  see  in  drunkards,  and  their  conse- 
quent incapability  of  carrying  the  morsel  directly  to 
the  mouth,  are  examples  of  what  would  be  of  daily 
occurrence,  unless  we  were  directed  and  assisted  by 
a  muscular  sense. 

Life  and  the  nervous  stimulus  are  essential  to 
muscular  power.  Separated  from  the  body,  and 
deprived  of  both,  the  muscle  which  formerly  con- 
tracted with  a  power  equal  to  100  pounds  would  be 
torn  asunder  by  a  weight  of  ten.  This  fact  is  of 
itself  sufficient  to  give  a  tolerable  notion  of  the  ex- 
tent to  which  muscular  contraction  depends  on 
other  causes  than  the  mere  structure  of  the  fleshy 
fibres,  for  these  continue  the  same  after  death,  or 


106       EVILS   RESULTING   FROM    INACTIVITY 

after  the  nervous  communication  has  been  sus- 
pended, as  in  recent  paralysis ;  and  yet  how  feeble 
B  the  power  of  resistance  which  the  muscle  then 
possesses ! 

The  required  movement  having  been  once  effected 
ty  the  nervous  impulse  stimulating  the  muscular  fibre 
lo  contraction,  relaxation  speedily  follows,  and  is 
in  its  turn  succeeded  by  a  fresh  contraction  pro- 
portioned to  the  object  in  view.  Muscular  action, 
therefore,  consists  properly  in  alternate  contraction  and 
relaxation  of  the  fleshy  fibres.  A  state  of  permanent 
contraction  "is  both  unnatural  and  impossible  ;  and, 
accordingly,  the  most  fatiguing  muscular  employ- 
ment to  which  a  man  can  be  subjected  is  that  of 
remaining  immoveable  in  any  given  attitude.  To 
an  unreflecting  person  it  may  seem  a  very  easy  and 
pleasant  service  to  stand  for  half  a  day  in  the  attitude 
of  an  Apollo  or  a  gladiator,  as  a  model  to  a  statuary ; 
but,  on  trying  it,  he  will  find,  to  his  astonishment, 
that  stone-breaking  or  the  tread-mill  are  pastimes  in 
comparison:  in  the  one  case,  the  muscles  which 
preserve  the  attitude  are  kept  incessantly  on  the 
strain ;  while  in  the  other,  they  enjoy  that  play  and 
variety  of  motion  for  which  they  were  destined  by 
nature.  We  may  easily  put  the  fact  to  the  test,  by 
attempting  to  hold  the  arm  extended  at  right  angles 
to  the  body  for  the  short  space  of  ten  minutes.  He 
whose  muscles,  if  indeed  capable  of  the  exertion,  do 
not  feel  sore  with  fatigue  at  the  end  of  that  time, 
may  think  himself  peculiarly  fortunate  in  being- 
blessed  with  a  powerful  constitution. 

The  principle  just  stated  explains  very  obviously 
the  weariness,  debility,  and  injury  to  health  which 
invariably  follow  forced  confinement  to  one  position 
Or  to  one  limited  variety  of  movement,  as  is  often 
witnessed  in  the  education  of  young  females.  Al- 
ternate contraction  and  relaxation,  or,  in  other 
words,  exercise  of  the  muscles  which  support  the 
trunk  of  the  body,  are  the  only  means  which,  ac- 


OF  THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM.        107 

cording  to  t!ie  Creator's  laws,  are  conducive  td 
muscular  development,  and  by  which  bodily  strength 
and  vigour  can  be  secured.  Instead  of  promoting 
such  exercise,  however,  the  prevailing  system  ot 
female  education  places  the  muscles  of  the  trunk,  in 
particular,  under  the  worst  possible  circumstances, 
and  renders  their  exercise  nearly  impossible.  Left 
to  its  own  weight,  the  body  would  fall  to  the  ground, 
in  obedience  to  the  ordinary  law  of  gravitation :  in 
sitting  and  standing,  therefore,  as  well  as  in  walking, 
the  position  is  preserved  only  by  active  muscular 
exertion.  But  if  we  confine  ourselves  to  one  atti- 
tude, such  as  that  of  sitting  erect  upon  a  chair — or, 
what  is  still  worse,  on  benches  without  backs,  as  is 
the  common  practice  in  schools, — it  is  obvious  that 
we  place  the  muscles  which  support  the  spine  and 
trunk  in  the  very  disadvantageous  position  of  per- 
manent instead  of  alternate  contraction  ;  which  we 
have  seen  to  be  in  reality  more  fatiguing  and  debili- 
tating to  them  than  severe  labour.  Girls  thus  re- 
strained daily  for  manj7  successive  hours  invariably 
suffer — being  deprived  of  the  sports  and  exercise 
after  school-hours  which  strengthen  the  muscles 
of  boys,  and  enable  them  to  withstand  the  oppres- 
sion. The  muscles  being  thus  enfeebled,  they 
either  lean  over  insensibly  to  one  side,  and  thus 
contract  curvature  of  the  spine ;  or,  their  weakness 
being  perceived,  they  are  forthwith  cased  in  stiffer 
and  stronger  stays — that  support  being  sought  for  in 
steel  and  whalebone  which  Nature  intended  they 
should  obtain  from  the  bones  and  muscles  of  their 
own  bodies.  The  patient,  finding  the  maintenance 
of  an  erect  carriage  (the  grand  object  for  which  all 
the  suffering  is  inflicted)  thus  rendered  more  easy 
at  first  welcomes  the  stays,  and,  like  her  teacher 
fancies  them  highly  useful.  Speedily,  however, 
their  effects  show  them  to  be  the  reverse  of  bene- 
ficial. The  same  want  of  varied  motion,  which  was 
the  prime  cause  of  the  muscular  weakness,  is  still 


108  RESULTING    FROM   INACTIVITY 

further  aggravated  by  the  tight  pressure  of  the  stays 
interrupting  the  play  of  the  muscles,  and  rendering 
them  in  a  few  months  more  powerless  than  ever. 
In  spite,  however,  of  the  weariness  and  mischief 
which  result  from  it,  the  same  system  is  persevered 
in ;  and,  during  the  short  time  allotted  to  that  nomi- 
nal exercise,  the  formal  walk,  the  body  is  left  almost 
as  motionless  as  before,  and  only  the  legs  are  called 
into  activity.  The  natural  consequences  of  this 
treatment  are,  debility  of  the  body,  curvature  of  the 
spine,  impaired  digestion,  and,  from  the  diminished 
tone  of  all  the  animal  and  vital  functions,  general  ill 
health : — and  yet,  while  we  thus  set  Nature  and  her 
laws  at  defiance,  we  presume  to  express  surprise  at 
the  prevalence  of  female  deformity  and  disease ! 

It  would  be  easy,  were  it  required,  to  prove  that 
the  picture  here  drawn  is  not  over-charged.  A 
single  instance,  from  a  note  appended  by  Dr.  Forbes 
to  an  excellent  treatise  on  "  Physical  Education," 
by  Dr.  Barlow  of  Bath,  will  suffice.  After  copying 
the  programme  of  a  boarding-school  for  young 
ladies,  which  exhibits  only  one  hour's  exercise,  con- 
sisting of  a  walk,  arm  in  arm,  on  the  high  road,  and 
that  only  when  the  weather  is  fine  at  the  particular  hour 
allotted  to  it,  in  contrast  with  nine  hours  at  school  or 
tasks,  and  three  and  a  half  at  optional  studies  or 
works, — Dr.  Forbes  adds : — "  That  the  practical  re- 
sults of  such  an  astounding  regimen  are  by  no 
means  overdrawn  in  the  preceding  pages  is  suffi- 
ciently evinced  by  the  following  fact,  a  fact  which, 
we  will  venture  to  say,  may  be  verified  by  inspec- 
tion of  thousands  of  boarding-schools  in  this  coun- 
try. We  lately  visited  in  a  large  town  a  hoarding- 
school  containing  forty  girls ;  and  we  learned  on  close 
and  accurate  inquiry,  that  there  was  not  one  of  the  girls 
who  had  been  at  the  school  two  years  (and  the  majority 
had  been  as  lon&)  that  were  not  more  or  less  CROOKED  ! 
Our  patient  was  in  this  predicament ;  and  we  could 
perceive  (what  all  may  perceive  who  meet  that 


0*    THE    MUSCULAR   SYSTEM.  100 

most  melancholy  of  all  processions, — a  boarding* 
school  of  young  ladies  in  their  walk)  that  all  her 
companions  were  pallid,  sallow,  and  listless.  We 
can  assert,  on  the  same  authority  of  personal  observa- 
tion, and  on  an  extensive  scale,  that  scarcely  a  single 
girl  (more  especially  of  the  middle  classes)  that  has  been 
at  a  boarding-school  for  two  or  three  years,  returns 
home  with  unimpaired  health ;  and  for  the  truth  of 
the  assertion,  we  may  appeal  to  every  candid  father, 
whose  daughters  have  been  placed  in  this  situation."* 

Dr.  Barlow  justly  remarks,  that  the  superintend- 
ents of  such  schools  cannot  generally  be  blamed  for 
indifference  about  the  welfare  of  their  pupils  ;  that 
most  of  them  are  extremely  anxious  to  do  their 
utmost  to  improve  those  under  their  charge ;  and 
that  it  is  ignorance  alone  which  misleads  them  as  to 
the  proper  means  :  he  might  have  adverted  also  to 
the  ignorance  of  parents,  who  insist  on  so  many 
hours  a  day  being  dedicated  to  the  study  of  accom- 
plishments for  which  their  children  have  neither 
taste,  capacity,  nor  use.  From  similar  ignorance, 
the  young  girls  in  a  public  hospital  in  this  country 
used  to  be  shut  up  in  the  hall  and  school-room  during 
play -hours,  from  November  till  March,  and  no  romping 
or  noise,  or,  in  other  words,  no  real  play,  relaxation,  or 
exercise  allowed ;  and  in  1830-31,  from  fear  of  typhus 
fever,  they  were  seldom,  if  ever,  out  of  doors,  ex- 
cept at  church,  from  November  to  April — than 
which  a  more  efficient  method  of  infringing  all  the 
laws  of  health  could  scarcely  have  been  devised. 
Here,  too,  the  object  was  unquestionably  benevolent, 
but  the  method  was  radically  bad ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence, a  great  deal  of  sickness  prevailed. 

The  sedentary  and  unvaried  occupations  which 
follow  each  other  for  hours  in  succession  in  many 
of  our  schools  have  also  been  the  cause  of  needless 
suffering  to  thousands;  and  it  is  high  time  that  a 

*  Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Medicine,  article  Physical  Educa- 
tion i  vol.  1.  p.  698. 

K 


110         EVILS    RESULTING    FROM   INACTIVITY* 

sound  physiology  should  step  in  to  root  out  all  such 
erroneous  and  hurtful  practices.  Taken  in  con- 
nexion with  the  long  confinement,  the  custom 
of  causing  the  young  to  sit  on  benches  without 
any  support  to  the  back,  and  without  any  variety 
of  motion,  cannot  be  too  soon  exploded.  If 
the  muscles  of  the  spine  were  strengthened  by 
the  exercise  which  they  require,  but  which  is  so 
generally  denied, — and  if  the  school  employments 
were  varied  or  interrupted  at  reasonable  intervals, 
to  admit  of  change  of  position  and  of  motion, — no- 
thing could  be  better  adapted  for  giving  an  easy  and 
erect  carriage  than  seats  without  backs,  because  the 
play  of  the  muscles  necessary  for  preserving  the 
erect  position  would  give  them  activity  and  vigour  ; 
and,  accordingly,  the  want  is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  felt 
in  infant-schools,  for  the  very  reason  that  such  va- 
riety of  motion  is,  in  them,  carefully  provided  for. 
But  it  is  a  gross  misconception  to  suppose  that  the 
same  good  result  will  follow  the  absence  of  support, 
when  the  muscles  are  weakened  by  constant  strain- 
ing and  want  of  play.  The  incessant  and  fidgety 
restlessness  observable  after  the  second  or  third 
hour  of  common  school  confinement  shows  the 
earnest  call  of  nature  for  a  little  wholesome  exer- 
cise ;  and  the  quiet  that  ensues  when  it  is  granted 
indicates  clearly  enough  that  the  restlessness 
springs  even  more  from  bodily  than  from  mental 
weariness.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  degree  of  what  we  all 
feel  when  kept  long  standing  on  our  feet,  or  sitting 
at  a  desk.  We  become  wearied  and  uneasy  from 
the  continued  strain  on  the  same  muscles,  and  feei 
at  once  relieved  by  a  walk,  a  drive,  -or  any  change 
whatever.  The  same  principle  explains  the  fatigue 
BO  often  complained  of,  as  experienced  in  "  shop- 
ping," or  in  an  exhibition-room.  We  saunter  about 
"till  the  muscles  become  sore  from  the  fatigue  of 
being  always  in  the  same  attitude,  and  we  are  re- 
freshed by  a  walk  or  a  dance,  or  any  thing  which 
alters  the  position  The  same  languor  of  the  mus- 


MENTAL    AND   MUSCULAR   EXERCISE.  Ill 

cles  is  felt  after  witnessing  a  pantomime,  or  other 
continuous  spectacle,  by  which  we  are  induced  to 
keep  the  neck  for  a  long  time  in  a  constrained  and 
unvaried  position. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  so  many  successive  hours 
being  devoted  to  study  and  to  books,  the  employ- 
ments of  the  young  ought  to  be  varied  and  inter- 
rupted by  proper  intervals  of  cheerful  and  exhilarat- 
ing exercise,  such  as  is  derived  from  games  of  dex- 
terity, which  require  the  co-operation  and  society 
of  companions.  This  is  infinitely  preferable  to  the 
solemn  processions  which  are  so  often  substituted 
for  exercise,  and  which  are  hurtful,  inasmuch  as 
they  delude  parents  and  teachers  into  the  notion 
that  they  constitute  in  reality  that  which  they  only 
counterfeit  and  supersede.  We  have  already  seen 
what  an  important  part  the  mental  stimulus  and 
nervous  impulse  perform,  in  exciting,  sustaining, 
and  directing  muscular  activity ;  and  how  difficult 
and  inefficient  muscular  contraction  becomes,  when 
the  mind,  which  directs  it,  is  languid,  or  absorbed  by 
other  employments.  The  playful  gambolling  and 
varied  movements  which  are  so  characteristic  of 
the  young  of  all  animals,  man  not  excepted,  and 
which  are  at  once  so  pleasing  and  so  beneficial,  show 
that,  to  render  it  beneficial  in  its  fullest  extent, 
nature  requires  amusement  and  sprightliness  of 
Blind  to  be  combined  with,  and  be  the  source  of, 
muscular  exercise ;  and  that,  when  deprived  of  this 
healthful  condition,  it  is  a  mere  evasion  of  her  law, 
and  is  not  followed  by  a  tithe  of  the  advantages 
resulting  from  its  real  fulfilment.  The  buoyancy 
of  spirit  and  comparative  independence  enjoyed  by 
boys  when  out  of  school  prevent  them  suffering  so 
much  from  this  cause  as  girls  do  ;  but  the  injury 
inflicted  on  both  is  the  more  unpardonable,  on  ac- 
count of  the  ease  with  which  it  might  be  entirely 
avoided 

Facts  illustrative  of  the  influence  of  mental,  co- 
operating with  and  aiding  muscular,  activity,  must 


112          ADVANTAGE    OF    COMBINING    MENTAL 

be  familiar  to  every  one  ;  but  as  the  principle  on 
which  they  depend  is  not  sufficiently  attended  to, 
I  shall  add  a  few  additional  remarks. 

Everybody  knows  how  wearisome  and  disagree- 
able it  is  to  saunter  along,  without  having  some  ob- 
ject to  attain ;  and  how  listless  and  unprofitable  a 
walk  taken  against  the  inclination  and  merely  for 
exercise  is,  compared  to  the  same  exertion  made  in 
pursuit  of  an  object  on  which  we  are  intent.  The 
difference  is  simply,  that,  in  the  former  case,  the 
muscles  are  obliged  to  work  without  that  full  ner- 
vous impulse  which  nature  has  decreed  to  be  essen- 
tial to  their  healthy  and  energetic  action  ;  and  that, 
in  the  latter,  the  nervous  impulse  is  in  full  and  har- 
monious operation.  The  great  superiority  of  active 
sports,  as  a  means  of  exercise,  over  mere  measured 
movements,  is  referable  to  the  same  principle. 
Every  kind  of  youthful  play  interests  and  excites 
the  mind,  as  well  as  occupies  the  body ;  and  by  thus 
placing  the  muscles  in  the  best  position  for  whole- 
some and  beneficial  exertion,  enables  them  to  act 
without  fatigue,  for  a  length  of  time  which,  if  occu- 
pied in  mere  walking  for  exercise,  would  utterly  ex- 
haust their  powers. 

The  elastic  spring,  bright  eye,  and  cheerful  glow 
of  beings  thus  excited  form  a  perfect  contrast  to 
the  spiritless  and  inanimate  aspect  of  many  of  our 
boarding-school  processions ;  and  the  results  in 
point  of  health  and  activity  are  not  less  different. 
So  powerful,  indeed,  is  the  nervous  stimulus,  that 
examples  have  occurred  of  strong  mental  emo- 
tions having  instantaneously  given  life  and  vigour 
to  paralytic  limbs.  This  has  happened  in  cases  of 
shipwrecks,  fires,  and  sea-fights,  and  shows  how  in- 
dispensable it  is  to  have  the  mind  engaged  and  inter- 
ested along  with  the  muscles.  Many  a  person  who 
feels  ready  to  drop  from  fatigue,  after  a  merely  me- 
chanical walk,  would  have  no  difficulty  in  subse- 
quently undergoing  much  continuous  exertion  in 
active  play  or  in  dancing;  and  it  is  absurd,  there  « 


WITH    MUSCULAR   EXERCISE.  115 

fore,  to  say  that  exercise  is  not  beneficial  when  in 
reality  proper  exercise  has  not  been  tried. 

The  amount  of  bodily  exertion  of  which  soldiers 
are  capable  is  well  known  to  be  prodigiously  in- 
creased by  the  mental  stimulus  of  pursuit,  of  fight- 
ing, or  of  victory.  In  the  retreat  of  the  French 
from  Moscow,  for  example,  when  no  enemy  was 
near,  the  soldiers  became  depressed  in  courage  and 
enfeebled  in  body,  and  nearly  sank  to  the  earth 
through  exhaustion  and  cold;  but  no  sooner  did  the 
report  of  the  Russian  guns  sound  in  their  ears,  or 
the  gieam  of  their  bayonets  flash  in  their  eyes,  than 
new  life  seemed  to  pervade  them,  and  they  wielded 
powerfully  the  arms  which,  a  few  moments  before, 
they  could  scarcely  drag  along  the  ground.  No 
sooner,  however,  was  the  enemy  repulsed,  and  the 
nervous  stimulus  which  animated  their  muscles 
withdrawn,  than  their  feebleness  returned.  Dr. 
Sparrman,in  like  manner,  after  describing  the  fatigue 
and  exhaustion  which  he  and  his  party  endured  in 
heir  travels  at  the  Cape,  adds, — "  yet,  what  even 
now  appears  to  me  a  matter  of  wonder  is,  that  as 
soon  as  we  got  a  glimpse  of  the  game,  all  this  languor 
left  us  in  an  instant"  On  the  principle  already  men- 
tioned, this  result  is  perfectly  natural,  and  in  strict 
harmony  with  what  we  observe  in  sportsmen,  crick- 
eters, golfers,  skaters,  and  others,  who,  moved  by  a 
mental  aim,  are  able  to  undergo  a  much  greater 
amount  of  bodily  labour  than  men  of  stronger  mus- 
cular frames,  actuated  by  no  excitement  of  mind  or 
vigorous  nervous  impulse.  We  have  heard  an  in- 
telligent engineer  remark  the  astonishment  often 
felt  by  country  people,  at  finding  him  and  his  town 
companions,  although  more  slightly  made,  withstand 
the  fatigues  and  exposure  of  a  day's  surveying  better 
than  themselves  ;  but,  said  he,  they  overlooked  the 
fact,  that  our  employment  gives  to  the  mind  as  well 
as  to  the  body  a  stimulus  which  they  were  entirely 
without>  as  their  only  object  was  to  uflford  us  bodily 


114          ADVANTAGE    OF    COMBINING    MENTAL 

aid,  when  required,  in  dragging  the  chains  or  carry- 
ing our  instruments.  The  conversation  of  a  friend 
is,  in  the  same  way,  a  powerful  alleviator  of  the 
fatigue  of  walking. 

The  same  important  principle  was  implied  in  the 
advice  which  the  Spectator  tells  us  was  given  by  a 

Ehysician  to  one  of  the  Eastern  kings,  when  he  brought 
im  a  racket,  and  told  him  that  the  remedy  was 
'-  concealed  in  the  handle,  and  could  act  upon  him  only 
by  passing  into  the  palms  of  his  hands  when  engaged 
in  playing  with  it,  and  that  as  soon  as  perspiration 
was  induced,  he  might  desist  for  the  time,  as  that 
would  be  a  proof  of  the  medicine  being  received 
into  the  general  system.  The  effect,  we  are  told, 
was  marvellous  ;  and,  looking  to  the  principle  just 
stated,  to  the  cheerful  nervous  stimulus  arising 
from  the  confident  expectation  of  a  cure,  and  to  the 
consequent  advantages  of  exercise  thus  judiciously 
managed,  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  fable 
is  in  perfect  accordance  with  nature. 

The  story  of  an  Englishman  who  conceived  him- 
self so  ill  as  to  be  unable  to  stir,  but  who  was  pre- 
vailed upon  by  his  medical  advisers  to  go  down  from 
London  to  consult  an  eminent  physician  at  Inver- 
ness who  did  not  exist,  may  serve  as  another  illus- 
tration. The  stimulus  of  expecting  the  means  of 
cure  from  the  northern  luminary  was  sufficient  to 
enable  the  patient  not  only  to  bear,  but  to  reap 
benefit  from,  the  exertion  of  making  the  journey 
down  ;  and  his  wrath  at  finding  no  such  person  at 
Inverness,  and  perceiving  that  it  was  all  a  trick,  sus- 
tained him  in  returning,  so  that  on  his  arrival  at 
home  he  was  nearly  cured.  Hence  also  the  supe- 
riority of  battledore  and  shuttlecock,  and  similar 
games,  which  require  society  and  some  mental 
stimulus,  over  mere  listless  exercise.  It  is,  in  fact, 
a  positive  misnomer  to  call  a  solemn  procession 
exercise.  Nature  will  not  be  cheated ;  and  the 


WITH  MUSCULAR    EXERCISE.  115 

healthful  results  of  complete  cheerful  exertion  will 
never  be  obtained  where  the  nervous  impulse  which 
animates  the  muscles  is  denied. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  a  walk 
simply  for  the  sake  of  exercise  can  never  be  bene- 
ficial. If  a  person  be  thoroughly  satisfied  that  ex- 
ercise is  requisite,  and  perfectly  willing,  or  rather 
desirous,  to  obey  the  call  which  demands  it,  he  is 
from  that  very  circumstance  in  a  fit  state  for  de- 
riving benefit  from  it,  because  the  desire  then  be- 
comes a  sufficient  nervous  impulse,  and  one  in 
perfect  harmony  with  the  muscular  action.  It  is 
only  where  a  person  goes  to  walk,  either  from  a 
sense  of  duty  or  at  the  command  of  another,  but 
against  his  own  inclination,  that  exercise  is  com- 
paratively useless. 

The  advantages  of  thus  combining  harmonious 
mental  excitement  with  muscular  activity  have  not 
escaped  the  sagacity  of  the  late  Dr.  Armstrong, 
who  thus  notices  them  in  his  frequently  reprinted 
poem  on  the  Art  of  Preserving  Health,  but  without 
giving  the  physiological  explanation : — 

In  whatever  you  sweat 

Indulge  your  taste.     Some  love  the  manly  toils, 
The  tennis  some,  and  some  the  graceful  dance; 
Others  more  hardy  range  the  purple  heath, 
Or  naked  stubble,  where  from  field  to  field 
The  sounding  covies  urge  their  lab'ring  flight, 
Eager  amid  the  rising  cloud  to  pour 
The  gun's  unerring  thunder ;  arid  there  are 
Whom  still  the  meed  of  the  green  archer  charms. 
He  chuses  best  whose  labour  entertains  >  <•-. 

His  vacant  fancy  most ;  THE  TOIL  YOU  HATE 
FATIGUES  YOU  SOON,  AND  SCARCE  IMPROVES  YOUR  LIMBS. 

Book  III. 

This  constitution  of  Nature,  whereby  a  mental 
impulse  is  required  to  excite  and  direct  muscular 
action,  points  to  the  propriety  of  teaching  the  young 
to  observe  and  examine  the  qualities  and  arrange- 
ments of  external  objects.  The  most  pleasing  and 


116  ADVANTAGE    OF    COMBINING    MENTAL 

healthful  exercise  may  be  thus  secured,  and  every 
step  be  made  to  add  to  useful  knowledge  and  to  in- 
dividual enjoyment.  The  botanist,  the  geologist, 
and  the  natural  historian  experience  pleasures  in 
their  walks  and  rambles  of  which,  from  disuse 
of  their  eyes  and  observing  powers,  the  multitude 
is  deprived.  This  truth  is  acted  upon  by  many 
teachers  in  Germany.  In  our  own  country,  too,  it 
is  beginning  to  be  felt,  and  one  of  the  professed 
objects  of  infant  education  is  to  correct  the  omis- 
sion. It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  any 
kind  of  mental  activity  will  give  the  necessary 
stimulus  to  muscular  action,  and  that,  in  walking,  it 
will  do  equally  well  to  read  a  book  or  carry  on  a 
train  of  abstract  thinking,  as  to  seek  the  necessary 
nervous  stimulus  in  picking  up  plants,  hammering 
rocks,  or  engaging  in  games.  This  were  a  great 
mistake  ;  for  in  such  cases  the  nervous  impulse  is 
opposed  rather  than  favourable  to  muscular  action. 
Wherever  the  mind  is  absorbed  in  reading  or  in 
abstract  speculation,  the  active  will  to  set  the 
muscles  in  motion  must  necessarily  be  proportion- 
ally weakened,  and  the  action  of  the  muscles  be  re- 
duced to  that  inanimate  kind  I  have  already  con- 
demned as  almost  useless.  For  true  and  beneficial 
exercise,  there  must  be  harmony  of  action  between  the 
moving  power  and  the  part  to  be  moved.  The  will  and 
the  muscle  must  be  both  directed  to  the  same  end  and  at 
the  same  time,  otherwise  the  effect  will  be  imperfect. 
The  force  exerted  by  strong  muscles,  animated  by 
strong  nervous  impulse  or  will,  is  prodigiously 
greater  than  when  the  impulse  is  weak;  and  as 
man  was  made  not  to  do  two  things  at  once,  but  to 
direct  his  whole  powers  to  the  one  thing  he  is  per- 
forming at  the  time,  he  has  ever  excelled  most  when 
he  followed  this  law  of  his  nature. 

When  a  physician  urges  the  necessity  of  exercise, 
it  is  very  usual  for  him  to  be  told  by  persons  of  an 
indolent  or  sedentary  habit,  that  even  a  short  walk 


WITH    MUSCULAR    EXERCISE.  117 

fatigues  them  so  much  as  to  render  them  unfit  for 
every  thing  for  some  days  after,  and  that  they  are 
never  so  well  as  when  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
house.  But  if,  in  perfect  reliance  on  the  regularity 
of  the  Creator's  laws,  we  seek  out  the  cause  of  this 
apparent  exception,  we  shall  almost  uniformly  find, 
that,  instead  of  beginning  with  a  degree  of  exertion 
proportioned  to  the  weakened  state  of  the  system, 
such  persons  have  (under  the  notion  that  it  was  riot 
worth  while  to  go  out  for  a  short  time)  forced  their 
muscles,  already  weakened  by  inactivity  and  con- 
finement, to  perform  a  walk  to  which  only  regularly 
exercised  muscles  were  adequate.  The  amount 
of  exertion  which  is  always  followed  by  exhaustion 
is  thus,  through  mere  impatience  and  ignorance, 
substituted  for  that  lesser  degree  which  always 
gives  strength ;  and  because  the  former  is  followed 
by  headache  and  debility,  it  is  argued  that  the  latter 
also  must  be  prejudicial!  Many  sensible  people 
delude  themselves  by  such  puerile  plausibilities  as 
this ;  and  it  is  only  by  the  diffusion  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  exercise  as  part  of  a  useful  educa- 
tion that  individuals  can  be  enabled  to  avoid  such 
mistakes. 

The  effects  of  exercise  upon  the  organs  employed 
are  very  remarkable,  and  useful  to  be  known.  When 
any  living  part  -is  called  into  activity,  the  processes 
of  waste  and  renovation,  which  are  incessantly 
going  on  in  every  part  of  the  body,  proceed  with 
greater  rapidity,  and  in  due  proportion  to  each 
other.  To  meet  this  condition,  the  vessels  and 
nerves  become  excited  to  higher  action,  and  the 
supply  of  arterial  or  nutritive  blood  and  of  nervous 
energy  becomes  greater.  When  the  active  exercise 
ceases,  the  excitement  thus  given  to  the  vital  func- 
tions subsides,  and  the  vessels  and  nerves  return  at 
length  to  their  original  state. 

If  the  exercise  be  resumed  frequently,  and  at 
moderate  intervals,  the  increased  action  of  the  blood* 


118          ADVANTAGE    OF    COMBINING    MENTAL 

vessels  and  nerves  becomes  more  permanent,  and 
does  not  sink  to  the  same  low  degree  as  formerly ; 
NUTRITION  rather  exceeds  waste,  and  the  part  GAINS  con" 
sequently  in  size,  vigour,  and  activity.  But  if  the  ex- 
ercise be  resumed  too  often,  or  be  carried  too  far, 
so  as  to  fatigue  and  exhaust  the  vital  powers  of  the 
part,  the  results  become  reversed :  WASTE  then  ex- 
ceeds nutrition,  and  a  LOSS  of  volume  and  of  power 
takes  place,  accompanied  with  a  painful  sense  of 
weariness,  fatigue,  and  exhaustion.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  exercise  is  altogether  refrained  from, 
the  vital  functions  decay  from  the  want  of  their 
requisite  stimulus;  little  blood  is  sent  to  the  part, 
and  nutrition  and  strength  fail  in  equal  proportion. 
A  limb  which  has  been  long  in  disuse  becomes 
weak  and  shrivelled  from  this  cause,  and  its  muscles 
present  an  unusual  paleness  and  flabbiness,  strongly 
contrasting  with  the  florid  redness  and  rigid  fulness 
of  the  muscles  of  a  well-exercised  limb. 

Even  sensation  gives  a  faithful  notice  of  these 
changes,  and  therefore  serves  as  a  guide  to  exer- 
cise. When  muscular  employment  is  neglected, 
the  body  becomes  weak,  dull,  and  unfit  for  powerful 
efforts,  and  all  the  functions  languish.  When  exer- 
cise is  taken  regularly  and  in  due  proportion,  a 
grateful  sense  of  activity  and  comfort  prevails,  and 
we  feel  ourselves  fit  for  every  duty,  both  mental 
and  bodily.  Lastly,  when  we  are  subjected  to  ex- 
cessive exertion,  a  painful  sense  of  weariness  and 
exhaustion  ensues,  which  is  not  relieved  by  rest, 
and  which  for  a  long  time  prevents  sleep.  A  person 
who  has  greatly  over-fatigued  himself  in  walking, 
for  example,  is  feeble  and  restless ;  and,  on  lying 
down,  either  cannot  sleep  at  all,  and  rises  in  the 
morning  weak  in  body  and  languid  in  mind,  or  has 
uneasy  and  disturbed  sleep  till  the  exhaustion  is 
partially  recovered  from,  after  which  he  may  enjoy 
sound  and  refreshing  repose. 

From  this  exposition  of  the  effects  of  exercise  in 


WITH    MUSCULAR    EXERCISE.  119 

its  different  stages,  it  becomes  easy  to  deduce 
rules  applicable  to  all,  for  promoting  the  healthy 
development  of  the  muscular  system,  and  to  trace 
the  errors  by  which  indolent  people  are  accustomed 
to  maintain  that  exercise  is  hurtful  to  their  consti- 
tutions. The  second  stage  of  exercise,  or  that  in 
which,  by  its  frequency,  moderation,  and  regularity,, 
nutrition  and  vigour  are  preserved  at  their  highest 
pitch,  is  of  course  to  be  aimed  at;  but  the  quantity 
of  exercise  which  corresponds  to  it  must  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  constitution  and  previous  habits  of 
the  individual,  as  is  well  exemplified  in  training  for 
pedestrian  feats,  for  the  ring  and  for  racing.  The 
assertion  made  by  many,  that  exercise  hurts  them, 
arises  entirely  from  overlooking  this  circumstance. 
A  person  accustomed  to  daily  activity  will  feel 
invigorated  by  a  walk  of  four  or  five  miles  in  the 
open  air ;  whereas  the  same  distance  will  weaken 
another,  who  has  not  been  in  the  habit  of  walking 
at  all.  But  instead  of  inferring  from  this,  as  is  often 
done,  that  exercise  in  the  open  air  is  positively 
hurtful  to  the  latter,  reason  and  experience  coincide 
in  telling  us,  that  he  has  erred  only  by  exceeding 
the  powers  of  his  system,  and  that  to  acquire 
strength  and  activity,  he  ought  to  have  begun  with 
one  mile,  and  to  have  gradually  extended  his  walk 
in  proportion  as  the  muscles  became  invigorated  by 
the  increased  nutrition  consequent  on  well-regulated 
exercise.  A  person  recovering  from  fever  begins 
by  walking  across  his  room  perhaps  ten  times  in  a 
day,  and  gradually  extends  to  twenty  or  thirty 
times,  till  he  gains  strength  to  go  into  the  open  air. 
On  going  out,  a  walk  of  ten  minutes  proves  suffi- 
cient for  him  at  first,  but  by  degrees  his  strength 
and  flesh  increase,  and  his  exercise  is  prolonged  till 
he  arrives  at  his  usual  standard.  Such  is  the  order 
of  Nature ;  but  many  sedentary  people  have  no 
patience  for  such  slow  progress,  and  when  urged  to 
take  exercise,  they  grudge  the  trouble  of  going  out 


120  BENEFICIAL  EFFECTS  OF  MUSCtJLAR  EXERCISE. 

for  a  short  time,  and  think  that,  if  a  walk  of  half  a 
mile  does  them  good,  one  of  a  whole  mile  will  do 
more ;  and  when  they  suffer  from  the  error,  they 
shelter  their  ignorance  under  the  general  assump- 
tion that  exercise  does  not  agree  with  them !  And 
the  same  persons  who  argue  thus  would  think 
themselves  entitled  to  laugh  at  the  Irishman  who, 
finding  himself  relieved  by  five  pills  taken  at  night, 
inferred  that  he  would  necessarily  be  cured  if  he 
took  the  whole  box  full  at  once,  and  on  doing  so 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life. 

From  these  principles  it  follows,  first,  that,  to  be 
beneficial,  exercise  ought  always  to  be  proportioned 
to  the  strength  and  constitution,  and  not  carried 
beyond  the  point,  easily  discoverable  by  experience, 
at  which  waste  begins  to  succeed  nutrition,  and  ex- 
haustion to  take  the  place  of  strength :  secondly,  that 
it  ought  to  be  regularly  resumed  after  a  sufficient 
interval  of  rest,  in  order  to  ensure  the  permanence 
of  the  healthy  impulse  given  to  the  vital  powers 
of  the  muscular  system  :  and,  lastly,  that  it  is  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  join  with  it  a  mental  and 
nervous  stimulus.  Those  who  go  out  only  once  in 
four  or  five  days  are  always  at  work  but  never  advan- 
cing ;  for  the  increased  action  induced  by  the  pre- 
vious exercise  has  fully  subsided  long  before  the 
succeeding  effort  is  begun :  and  so  far  as  increased 
nutrition  and  greater  aptitude  for  exertion  are  con- 
cerned, no  progress  whatever  is  made. 


EFFECTS  OF  MUSCULAR  EXERCISE.    121 


CHAPTER  V. 

Effects  of  Muscular  Exercise  on  the  principal  Functions  of  the 
Body  explained — Shampooing  a  Substitute  for  Exercise — 
Evils  of  deficient  Exercise — Best  Time  for  taking  Exeicise — 
Always  to  be  taken  in  the  open  Air — Different  Kinds- 
Walking — Riding — Dancin  g — Gymnastics — Fencing — Shut 
tlecock — Reading  aloud — Case  illustrative  of  the  Principles 
of  Exercise — Involuntary  Muscles. 

WE  have  seen  that  exercise  is  necessary  for  de- 
veloping and  improving  the  health  of  the  muscular 
system ;  but  it  still  remains  for  us  to  explain  how  it 
acts  in  imparting  tone  and  strength  to  the  rest  of  the 
body,  and  to  mention  the  circumstances  by  which 
its  employment  ought  to  be  regulated. 

Man  being  intended  for  a  life  of  activity,  all  his 
functions  are  constituted  by  Nature  to  fit  him  for 
this  object,  and  they  never  go  on  so  successfully  as 
•when  his  external  situation  is  such  as  to  demand  the 
regular  exercise  of  all  his  organs.  It  is,  accordingly, 
curious  to  observe  the  admirable  manner  in  which 
each  is  linked  in  its  action  and  sympathies  with  the 
rest.  When  the  muscular  system,  for  example,  is 
duly  exercised,  increased  action  in  its  vessels  and 
nerves  takes  place,  as  already  observed ;  but  the 
effect  is  not  by  any  means  limited  to  the  mere  organs 
of  motion.  The  principal  blood-vessels  in  all  parts 
of  the  body  lie  imbedded  among  muscles,  for  both 
the  protection  and  aid  which  the  latter  afford  them. 
Every  contraction  of  the  muscles  compresses  the 
diameter  of  the  vessels ;  and  as  the  blood  contained 
in  them  cannot  retrograde  in  its  course,  it  is  pro- 
pelled in  the  arteries  from  the  heart  towards  the  ex- 
L 


EFFECTS    OF    MUSCtTLAR    EXERCISE* 

treme  parts,  and  in  the  veins  from  the  latter  towards 
the  heart,  with  greater  force  and  velocity  than  before. 
This  will  be  better  understood  on 
examining  the  annexed  engraving 
of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  arm, 
.  copied  "Trom  Fyfe's  Anatomy. 
The  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  repre- 
sent the  principal  muscles  of  the 
arm;  and  F,  G,  H,  I,  K,  M,  N, 
those  of  the  forearm ;  but  as  the 
preparation  is  dried,  and  the  mus- 
cles consequently  much  shrunk, 
they  do  not  appear  in  their  natural 
situation.  The  letters  in  italics 
refer  to  the  humeral  artery,  which 
is  seen  dividing  at  the  elbow  into 
two  branches.  The  one,  called 
the  radial  artery,  passes  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  forearm  towards 
the  thumb,  and  is  the  branch  in 
which  the  pulse  is  generally  felt ; 
the  other,  called  the  ulnar^  passes 
along  the  inner  side  of  the  fore- 
arm. 

In  the  natural  state,  these  blood- 
vessels are  covered  and  protected 
in  almost  their  whole  course  by 
the  adjacent  muscles.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  position,  the  mus- 
cles cannot  contract  without  at 
the  same  time  compressing  the  blood-vessels,  and 
propelling  their  contents.  The  assistance  afforded 
to  the  circulation  of  the  blood  by  this  arrangement 
is  familiarly  exemplified  in  the  operation  of  blood- 
letting from  the  arm.  When  the  blood  stops  or 
flows  slowly,  it  is  customary  to  put  a  ball  or  other 
hard  body  into  the  hand  of  the  patient,  and  desire  him 
to  squeeze  and  roll  it  about.  The  success  of  this 
action  depends  simply  on  the  muscles  of  the  arm 


EFFECTS  OF  MUSCULAR  EXERCISE.     123 

compressing  the  interjacent  blood-vessels,  and  forc- 
ing onwards  the  current  of  the  contained  blood  by 
their  successive  contractions.  Muscular  action  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  powers  provided  for  effecting  a 
regular  circulation.  And  hence  when  its  assistance 
is  neglected,  as  it  is  by  those  who  take  no  active 
exercise,  the  blood  begins  to  flow  less  freely,  till  at 
last  it  finds  some  difficulty  in  returning  against  the 
law  of  gravitation  from  the  depending  parts,  which 
\hen  gradually  swell.  People  engaged  for  years 
in  sedentary  professions  are  thus  very  subject  to 
varicose  or  dilated  veins  and  swelled  feet. 

The  chain  of  connexion  among  all  the  living  func- 
tions is  nowhere  more  visible  than  in  this  relation 
between  muscular  exercise  and  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Action  requires  the  presence  of  arterial 
blood ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  muscles,  the  very  cir- 
cumstance of  their  being  active  favours  the  circula- 
tion and  increases  the  supply.  This  increase,  in  its 
turn,  enables  the  parts  to  which  it  is  sent  to  act  with 
greater  energy  and  effect,  and  the  augmented  action 
is  attended  by  corresponding  waste  and  exhalation. 
To  replenish  the  blood  thus  exhausted  of  its  nutri- 
tive principle,  a  greater  quantity  of  food  is  required  ; 
and,  to  prompt  us  to  attend  to  this  condition,  the 
appetite  becomes  keener  and  more  imperative,  and 
the  powers  of  digestion  proportionally  vigorous. 
The  food  taken  is  more  speedily  converted  into 
chyle,  its  absorption  from  the  surface  of  the  intes- 
tines and  transmission  into  the  circulating  current 
more  rapid  ;  and  that  the  blood  thus  improved  may 
be  properly  and  quickly  animalized  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  lungs,  respiration  becomes  deeper  and  more 
frequent,  thus  admitting  a  larger  quantity  of  air  and 
freer  circulation  through  them  than  before  ;  and  the 
blood,  thus  renewed  and  re-endowed  with  the  pabu- 
lum of  life,  imparts  fresh  nutriment  and  vigour  to 
all  the  organs  of  the  body,  and  fits  them  for  that 
active  exertion  which  the  proper  discharge  of  his 


124     SHAMPOOING  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  EXERCISE. 

duties  imperatively  requires  from  every  member  of 
the  human  race. 

Considered  in  this  point  of  view,  the  hurried 
breathing  and  quickened  circulation,  of  which  we 
are  so  apt  to  complain  when  engaged  in  muscular 
exercise,  instead  of  being  evils,  are,  in  fact,  the 
beneficent  means  by  which  we  become  fitted  to  con- 
tinue the  exertion.  Without  a  more  than  usually 
rapid  flow  of  blood  to  the  part  in  use,  the  necessary- 
stimulus  to  its  vessels  and  nerves  could  not  take 
place,  and  its  action  could  not  be  sustained.  But 
were  the  blood-vessels  not  so  situated  among  the 
muscles  as  to  have  their  contents  propelled  more 
quickly  by  the  compression  to  which  every  muscular 
contraction  necessarily  subjects  them,  it  is  obvious 
that  no  increase  of  circulation  could  take  place. 
And  if  respiration,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  to 
become  accelerated,  so  as  to  oxygenate  the  venous 
blood  more  quickly  as  it  arrived  at  the  lungs,  it  is 
obvious,  that  the  requisite  stimulus  must  again  have 
failed,  as,  in  that  case,  the  blood  must  either  have 
accumulated  in  the  lungs  and  caused  death,  or  have 
passed  through  them  imperfectly  prepared,  and  ex- 
tinguished life  more  slowly,  but  not  less  certainly. 

It  is  from  this  effect  of  muscular  compression  in 
promoting  the  flow  of  blood  through  the  arteries  and 
veins,  that  shampooing,  which  consists  in  a  kind  of 
kneading  of  the  flesh,  is  so  successfully  resorted  to 
in  the  warm  climates  of  the  East,  and  among  the 
richer  class  of  invalids  in  our  own  country,  as  a 
substitute  for  active  exercise.  Shampooing  fur- 
nishes from  without  that  impulse  to  the  circulation 
which  the  Creator  had  destined  it  to  receive  from 
active  muscular  exertion ;  and  the  principle  of  its 
action  being  the  same,  we  cannot  wonder  that  it 
should  prove  indisputably  useful  in  promoting  circu- 
lation, strength,  and  nutrition,  in  cases  where  active 
exercise  cannot  be  enjoyed. 

It  is  a  common  observation,  that  sedentary  persons 


EVILS    OF    DEFICIENT    EXERCISE.  125 

are  habitually  subject  to  castiveness  and  its  attend- 
ant evils.  The  reason  is  the  same.  In  the  natural 
state,  the  contents  of  the  bowels  are  propelled  partly 
by  the  successive  contractions  of  the  muscles  which 
form  the  walls  of  the  belly,  and  separate  that  cavity 
from  the  chest ;  and  partly  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscular  fibres,  which  constitute  an  important  part 
of  the  structure  of  the  intestinal  canal.  If,  however, 
exercise  be  refrained  from,  and  the  same  position  be 
preserved  for  many  hours  a  day,  as  in  sitting  at  a 
desk,  the  bowels  are  necessarily  deprived  of  one  im- 
portant source  of  power;  and  thus  weakened,  they 
are  unable  to  act  upon  and  propel  their  contents 
with  the  same  regularity  as  when  assisted  by  exer- 
cise. A  slowness  of  action  ensues,  which  no  course 
of  medicine,  and  scarcely  any  modification  of  diet, 
can  overcome,  so  long  as  sedentary  habits  are  in- 
dulged in ;  but  which  also  may  often  be  relieved  by 
daily  pressing  over  the  region  of  the  abdomen  with 
a  kind  of  kneading  motion,  imitating,  though  feebly, 
the  effects  of  muscular  action.  Females  suffer  much 
from  intestinal  debility  caused  by  sedentary  habits. 

The  evils  arising  from  deficiency  of  exercise  to  all 
the  functions  of  the  mind  and  body  will  now  be 
equally  evident  and  intelligible,  for  they  are  the  con- 
verse of  what  we  have  seen  to  be  the  advantages  of 
adequate  exercise.  The  circulation,  from  want  of 
stimulus,  becomes  languid,  especially  in  the  extreme 
vessels;  the  feebleness  of  action  occasions  little 
waste  of  materials;  the  appetite  and  digestion  con- 
sequently become  weak ;  respiration  heavy  and  im- 
perfect ;  and  the  blood  so  ill-conditioned,  that,  when 
distributed  through  the  body,  it  proves  inadequate  to 
communicate  the  stimulus  requisite  for  healthy  and 
vigorous  action.  The  concatenation  of  causes  and 
consequences  thus  exhibited  cannot  fail,  when  the 
principle  connecting  them  is  perceived,  to  interest 
and  instruct  every  thinking  mind. 

The  time  at  which  exercise  ought  to  be  taken  is 
L2 


126        BEST   TIME    FOR   TAKING    EXERCISE. 

of  some  consequence  in  obtaining  from  it  beneficial 
results.  Those  who  are  in  perfect  health  may  en- 
gage in  it  at  almost  any  hour,  except  immediately 
after  a  full  meal ;  but  those  who  are  not  robust 
ought  to  confine  their  hours  of  exercise  within  nar- 
rower limits.  To  a  person  in  full  vigour,  a  good 
walk  in  the  country  before  breakfast  may  be  highly 
beneficial  and  exhilarating ;  while,  to  an  invalid  or 
delicate  person,  it  will  prove  more  detrimental  than 
useful,  and  will  induce  a  sense  of  weariness,  which 
will  spoil  the  pleasure  of  the  whole  day.  Many  are 
deceived  by  the  current  poetical  praises  of  the  fresh- 
ness of  morning,  and  hurt  themselves  in  summer  by 
seeking  health  in  untimely  promenades. 

In  order  to  be  beneficial,  exercise  must  be  resorted 
to  only  when  the  system  is  sufficiently  vigorous  to 
be  able  to  meet  it.  This  is  the  case  after  a  lapse 
of  from  two  to  four  or  five  hours  after  a  moderate 
meal,  and,  consequently,  the  forenoon  is  the  best 
time.  If  exercise  be  delayed  till  some  degree  of 
exhaustion  from  the  want  of  food  has  occurred,  it 
speedily  dissipates  instead  of  increases  the  strength 
which  remains,  and  impairs  instead  of  promotes  di- 
gestion. The  result  is  quite  natural ;  for  exercise 
of  every  kind  causes  increased  action  and  waste  in 
the  organ ;  and  if  there  be  not  materials  and  vigour 
enough  in  the  general  system  to  keep  up  that  action 
and  supply  the  waste,  nothing  but  increased  debility 
can  reasonably  be  expected. 

For  the  same  reason,  exercise  immediately  before 
meals,  unless  of  a  very  gentle  description,  is  injuri- 
ous, and  an  interval  of  rest  ought  always  to  inter- 
vene. Muscular  action  causes  an  afflux  of  blood  and 
nervous  energy  to  the  surface  and  extremities,  and 
if  food  be  swallowed  whenever  the  activity  ceases, 
and  before  time  has  been  allowed  for  a  different 
distribution  of  the  vital  powers  to  take  place,  the 
stomach  is  taken  at  disadvantage,  and,  from  want 
of  the  necessary  action  in  its  vessels  and  nerves,  is 


'BEST  TIME  FOR  TAKING  EXERCISE.       127 

Unable  to  carry  on  digestion  with  success.  This  is 
very  obviously  the  case  where  the  exercise  has  been 
severe  or  protracted,  and  the  consequence  is  so  well 
known,  that  it  is  an  invariable  rule  in  the  manage- 
ment of  horses,  never  to  feed  them  immediately 
after  work,  but  always  to  allow  them  an  interval  of 
rest  proportioned  to  the  previous  labour.  Even  in- 
stinct would  lead  to  this  conduct,  for  appetite  revives 
after  repose. 

Exercise  ought  to  he  equally  avoided  immediately 
after  a  heavy  meal.  In  such  circumstances,  the  func- 
tions of  the  digestive  organs  are  in  their  highest  state 
of  activity;  and  if  the  muscular  system  be  then  called 
into  considerable  action,  the  withdrawal  of  the  vital 
stimuli  of  the  blood  and  nervous  influence  from  the 
stomach  to  the  extremities  is  sufficient  almost  to 
stop  the  digestive  process.  This  is  no  supposition, 
but  demonstrated  fact ;  and  accordingly,  there  is  a 
natural  and  marked  aversion  to  active  pursuits  after 
a  full  meal.  In  a  dog,  which  had  hunted  for  an  hour 
or  two  directly  after  eating,  digestion  was  found  on 
dissection  to  have  scarcely  begun ;  while  in  another 
dog,  fed  at  the  same  time,  and  left  at  home,  digestion 
was  nearly  completed. 

A  mere  stroll,  which  requires  no  exertion,  and 
does  not  fatigue,  will  not  be  injurious  before  or  after 
eating ;  but  exercise  beyond  this  limit  is  hurtful  at 
such  times.  All,  therefore,  whose  object  is  to  im- 
prove or  preserve  health,  and  whose  occupations  are 
in  their  own  power,  ought  to  arrange  these,  so  as  to 
observe  faithfully  this  important  law,  for  they  will 
otherwise  deprive  themselves  of  most  of  the  benefits 
resulting  from  exercise. 

When  we  know  that  we  shall  be  forced  to  exertion 
soon  after  eating,  we  ought  to  make  a  very  moderate 
meal,  to  avoid  setting  the  stomach  and  muscles  at 
variance  with  each  other,  and  exciting  feverish  dis- 
turbance. In  travelling  by  a  stage-coach,  where  no 
repose  is  allowed,  this  precaution  is  invaluable.  If 


128         BEST    TIME    FOR    TAKING    EXERCISfi* 

we  eat.  heartily  as  appetite  suggests,  and  then  enter 
the  coach,  restlessness,  flushing,  and  fatigue  are  in- 
evitable ;  whereas,  by  eating  sparingly,  the  journey 
may  be  continued  for  two  or  three  days  and  nights, 
with  less  weariness  than  is  felt  during  one-fourth  of 
the  time  under  full  feeding.  I  observed  this  when 
travelling  as  an  invalid  on  rather  low  diet,  and  was 
surprised  to  find  myself  less  fatigued  at  the  end  of 
seventy-two  hours  than  I  had  previously  been  wnen 
in  health  and  living  fully,  with  half  the  journey ;  and 
1  have  heard  the  same  remark  made  by  others,  also 
from  experience. 

It  is  the  custom  in  many  families  and  schools, 
apparently  for  the  purpose  of  saving  time,  to  take 
young  people  out  to  walk  about  the  close  of  the  day, 
because  there  is  not  light  enough  to  do  any  thing  in 
the  house.  Nothing  can  be  more  injudicious  than 
this  plan,  for,  in  the  first  place,  exercise  once  a  day 
is  very  insufficient  for  the  young,  and  even  sup- 
posing that  it  were  enough,  the  air  is  then  more 
loaded  with  moisture,  colder,  and  proportionably 
more  unhealthy  than  at  any  other  time ;  and  the  ab- 
sence of  the  beneficial  stimulus  of  the  solar  light 
diminishes  not  a  little  its  invigorating  influence. 
For  those,  consequently,  who  are  so  little  out  of 
doors  as  the  inmates  of  boarding-schools  and  chil- 
dren living  in  towns,  and  who  are  all  at  the  period 
of  growth,  the  very  best  times  of  the  day  ought  to 
be  chosen  for  exercise,  particularly  as  in-door  occu- 
pations are,  after  nightfall,  more  in  accordance  with 
the  order  of  nature. 

By  devoting  part  of  the  forenoon  also  to  exercise, 
another  obvious  advantage  is  gained.  If  the  weather 
prove  unfavourable  at  an  early  hour,  it  may  clear 
up  in  time  to  admit  of  going  out  later  in  the  day; 
whereas,  if  the  afternoon  alone  be  allotted  to  exer- 
cise, and  the  weather  proves  bad,  the  day  is  alto- 
gether lost.  In  winter,  indeed,  it  is  not  unusual  for 
girls  to  be  thus  confined  from  Sunday  to  Sunday, 


BEST    TIME    FOR    TAKING    EXERCISE.         129 

simply  because  the  weather  is  rainy  at  the  regular  hour 
of  going  out.  When  the  muscular  system  is  duly  ex- 
ercised in  the  open  air  early  in  the  day,  the  power  of 
mental  application  is  considerably  increased ;  while, 
by  delaying  till  late,  the  efficiency  of  the  whole  pre- 
vious mental  labour  is  diminished  by  the  restless  crav- 
ing for  motion  which  is  evinced  by  the  young  of  all 
animals ;  and  which,  when  unsatisfied,  distracts  at- 
tention, and  leads  to  idleness  in  school.  It  would 
be  well  to  copy  in  this  respect  the  practice  adopted 
in  the  infant-schools,  where  the  children  are  turned 
out  to  play  for  a  few  minutes,  as  soon  as  the  wan- 
dering of  mind  and  restlessness  of  body  indicate  that 
the  one  has  been  too  much  and  the  other  too  little 
exerted.  After  such  an  interval,  work  goes  on 
briskly  again,  and  every  one  is  alive. 

To  render  exercise  as  beneficial  as  possible,  par- 
ticularly in  educating  the  young,  it  ought  always  to 
be  taken  in  the  open  air,  and  to  be  of  a  nature  to 
occupy  the  mind  as  well  as  the  body.  Social  play 
and  active  sports  of  every  kind,  cricket,  bowls,  shut- 
tlecock, the  ball,  archery,  quoits,  hide-and-seek,  arid 
similar  recreations  well-known  to  the  young,  are  in- 
finitely preferable  to  regular  and  unmeaning  walks, 
and  tend  in  a  much  higher  degree  to  develop  and 
strengthen  the  bodily  frame,  and  to  secure  a  straight 
spine  and  an  erect  and  firm  but  easy  and  graceful 
carriage.  A  formal  walk  is  odious  and  useless  to 
many  girls,  who  would  be  delighted  and  benefited 
by  spending  two  or  three  hours  a  day  in  spirited 
exercise. 

Let  those  mothers  who  are  afraid  to  trust  to 
Nature  for  strengthening  and  developing  the  limbs 
and  spines  of  their  daughters  attend  to  FACTS,  and 
their  fears  will  vanish.  It  is  notorious  that  a  ma- 
jority of  those  girls  who,  in  opposition  to  the  laws 
of  nature,  are  encased  in  stays,  and  get  insufficient 
exercise,  become  deformed ;  an  occurrence  which 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  comparatively  rare  in  boys, 


130  DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    EXERCISE. 

who  are  left,  in  conformity  with  the  designs  of  na- 
ture, to  acquire  strength  and  symmetry  from  free 
and  unrestricted  muscular  action.  In  a  seminary 
for  young  ladies,  for  example,  containing  forty 
pupils,  it  was  discovered  on  examination,  by  Dr. 
Forbes,  that  only  two  out  of  those  who  had  been  resi- 
dent in  it  for  two  years  had  straight  spines ;  while 
out  of  an  equal  number  of  boys,  imperfect  as  their 
exercise  often  is,  it  would  be  difficult  to  discover  as 
many  whose  spines  were  not  straight.  Here,  then, 
is  ample  proof  that  stays  and  absence  of  exercise, 
so  far  from  contributing  to  an  elegant  carriage,  are 
directly  opposed  to  its  acquisition ;  and  that  the 
absence  of  stays  and  indulgence  in  exercise,  even 
when  not  carried  so  far  as  the  wants  of  the  system 
require,  so  far  from  being  hurtful  to  the  spine,  con- 
tribute powerfully  to  its  strength  and  security.  Yet 
such  is  the  dominion  of  prejudice  and  habit,  that, 
with  these  results  meeting  our  observation  in  every 
quarter,  we  continue  to  make  as  great  a  distinction 
in  the  physical  education  of  the  two  sexes  in  early 
life,  as  if  they  belonged  to  different  orders  of  beings, 
and  were  constructed  on  such  opposite  principles, 
that  what  was  to  benefit  the  one  must  necessarily 
hurt  the  other. 

Different  kinds  of  exercise  suit  different  constitu- 
tions. The  object,  of  course,  is  to  employ  all  the 
muscles  of  the  body,  and  to  strengthen  those  es- 
pecially which  are  too  weak ;  and  hence,  exercise 
ought  to  be  often  varied,  and  always  adapted  to  the 
peculiarities  of  individuals.  Speaking  generally, 
walking  agrees  well  with  everybody,  but  as  it  exer- 
cises chiefly  the  lower  limbs  and  the  muscles  of  the 
loins,  and  affords  little  scope  for  the  play  of  the 
arms  and  muscles  of  the  chest,  it  is  insufficient  of 
itself  to  constitute  adequate  exercise ;  and  hence 
the  advantage  of  combining  with  it  movements  per- 
formed by  the  upper  half  of  the  body,  as  in  many 


KINDS    0*   EXERCISE.  131 

useful  sports,  and  in  fishing.  Such  exercises  have 
the  additional  advantage  of  animating  the  mind,  and, 
by  increasing  the  nervous  stimulus,  making  exertion 
easy,  pleasant,  and  invigorating. 

Pedestrian  excursions,  in  pursuit  of  mineralogi- 
cal  or  botanical  specimens,  or  in  search  of  scenery, 
combine  in  their  results  all  the  advantages  which 
well-conducted  exercise  is  capable  of  yielding,  and 
are  much  resorted  to  in  the  German  seminaries,  for 
the  purpose  of  developing  the  mental  and  bodily 
powers.  In  summer,  walking  excursions  to  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  are  common  among  the  youth 
of  our  cities,  and  when  proportioned  in  extent  to 
the  constitutions  and  previous  habits  of  the  individ- 
uals, nothing  can  be  more  advantageous  and  delight- 
ful. But  not  a  season  passes  in  which  health  is  not 
sacrificed  and  life  lost  by  young  men  imprudently 
exceeding  their  natural  powers,  and  undertaking 
journeys  and  excursions  for  which  they  are  totally 
unfitted.  It  is  no  unusual  thing  for  youths  still 
weak  from  rapid  growth,  and  perhaps  accustomed 
to  the  desk,  to  set  out  in  high  spirits  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  a  day,  on  a  walking  ex- 
cursion, and  (in  consequence  of  carrying  exercise, 
for  days  in  succession,  to  the  third  degree,  or  that 
in  which  waste  exceeds  nutrition)  to  come  home  so 
much  worn  out  and  debilitated  that  they  never  re- 
cover. Young  soldiers,  whose  growth  is  scarcely 
finished,  are  well  known  to  die  in  great  numbers, 
when  exposed  to  long  and  heavy  marches,  particu- 
larly when  food  is  at  the  same  time  scanty.  Even 
a  single  day  of  excessive  fatigue  will  sometimes 
suffice  to  produce  permanent  bad  health;  and  I 
know  one  instance  of  a  strong  young  man,  who 
brought  on  a  severe  illness  and  permanent  debility, 
by  a  sudden  return  to  hard  exercise  for  a  single  day, 
although  some  years  before  he  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  every  species  of  muscular  exertion  in  run- 
ning, leaping,  and  swimming.  Many  young  men 


132  DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF   EXERCISE. 

hurry  on  the  premature  development  of  consump- 
tion by  excessive  fatigue  during  the  shooting  sea- 
son, in  cases  where,  by  prudent  management,  they 
might  have  escaped  it  for  years,  if  not  altogether. 
The  principle  already  laid  down,  of  not  exceeding 
the  point  at  which  exercise  promotes  nutrition  and  in- 
creases strength,  will  serve  as  a  safe  guide  on  all  oc- 
casions, and  indicate  the  rate  at  which  it  may  be 
extended.  Old  sportsmen  know  the  rule  by  expe- 
rience, and  generally  prepare  themselves  for  the 
moors  by  several  weeks  of  previous  training. 

Since  writing  the  preceding  remarks,  I  have  been 
made  acquainted  by  a  friend  with  a  melancholy  but 
instructive  proof  of  their  general  accuracy.  He 
says,  "  A  young  gentleman,  whom  I  knew,  was 
employed  as  a  clerk  in  one  of  the  banks  in  Ediri* 
burgh.  He  was  closely  confined  to  his  desk  during 
the  summer,  and,  towards  the  end  of  July,  had  be- 
come weak  and  emaciated,  from  deficient  exercise 
in  the  open  air.  His  strength  continued  to  decline 
till  Friday  the  12th  of  August,  when  he  went  to 
shoot  on  Falkirk  Moor.  On  Friday  and  Saturday  he 
was  much  fatigued  by  excessive  and  unusual  exer- 
tion, and  on  Sunday  evening  was  feverish  and  heated, 
and  perspired  very  much  during  the  night.  In  this 
condition  he  rose  about  three  or  four  o'clock  on 
Monday  morning,  and  returned  to  Edinburgh  on  the 
top  of  a  coach.  When  he  reached  home  he  felt 
very  unwell,  but  went  to  the  bank.  At  two  o'clock 
he  became  so  sick  as  to  be  unable  to  sit  at  his  desk. 
He  was  then  bled  by  a  medical  gentleman,  but  with- 
out much  effect ;  and  after  passing  three  months  in 
a  feverish  and  sleepless  condition,  he  died  in  the 
beginning  of  November.  He  was  previously  of  a 
healthy  constitution."  It  is  more  than  probable  that 
this  young  man's  life  became  a  sacrifice  to  his  igno- 
rance of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  human 
body. 

Riding  is  a  most  salubrious  exercise,  and,  where 


DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF   EXERCISE.  133 

the  lungs  are  weak,  possesses  a  great  advantage 
over  walking ;  as  it  does  not  hurry  the  breathing. 
It  calls  into  more  equal  play  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body,  and  at  the  same  time  engages  the  mind  in  the 
management  of  the  animal,  and  exhilarates  by  the 
free  contact  of  the  air  and  more  rapid  change  of 
scene.  Even  at  a  walking  pace,  a  gentle  but  uni- 
versal and  constant  action  of  the  muscles  is  required 
to  preserve  the  seat,  and  adapt  the  rider's  position 
to  the  movements  of  the  horse ;  and  this  kind  of 
muscular  action  is  extremely  favourable  to  the 
proper  and  equal  circulation  of  the  blood  through 
the  extreme  vessels,  and  to  the  prevention  of  its 
undue  accumulation  in  the  central  organs.  The 
gentleness  of  the  action  admits  of  its  being  kept  up 
without  accelerating  respiration,  and  enables  a  deli- 
cate person  to  reap  the  combined  advantages  of  the 
open  air  and  proper  exercise,  for  a  much  longer  pe- 
riod than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 

From  the  tendency  of  riding  to  equalize  the  cir- 
culation, stimulate  the  skin,  and  promote  the  action 
of  the  bowels,  it  is  also  excellently  adapted  as  an 
exercise  for  dyspeptic  and  nervous  invalids. 

Dancing  is  a  cheerful  and  useful  exercise,  but  has 
the  disadvantage  of  being  used  within  doors,  in  con- 
fined air,  often  in  dusty  rooms,  and  at  most  unsea- 
sonable hours.  Practised  in  the  open  air,  and  in 
the  day-time,  as  is  common  in  France,  dancing  is 
certainly  an  invigorating  pastime  ;  but  in  heated 
rooms  and  at  late  hours  it  is  the  reverse,  and  often 
does  more  harm  than  good. 

Gymnastic  and  callisthenic  exercises  have  been  in 
vogue  for  some  years,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
muscular  and  general  growth  and  strength,  but  they 
are  now  rather  sinking  in  public  estimation  ;  en- 
tirely, I  believe,  from  overlooking  the  necessity  of 
adapting  the  kind  and  extent  of  them  to  the  indi- 
vidual constitution ;  the  consequence  of  which  has 
been,  that  some  of  the  more  weakly  pupils  have 


134  DIFFERENT   KINDS    OF   EXERCISE; 

been  injured  by  exertions  beyond  their  strength, 
and  discredit  has  thus  been  brought  upon  the  sys- 
tem. It  is  certain,  indeed,  that  many  of  the  com- 
mon gymnastic  exercises  are  fit  only  for  robust  and 
healthy  boys,  and  not  at  all  for  improving  those  who 
are  delicately  constituted,  and  who  stand  most  in 
need  of  a  well-planned  training.  It  is  impossible  to 
enter  minutely  into  this  subject  at  present,  but  again 
the  general  principle  comes  to  our  assistance; — 
viz.  carefully  to  avoid  great  fatigue,  and  always  to 
adapt  the  kind,  degree,  and  duration  of  every  gym- 
nastic exercise,  so  as  to  produce  the  desired  results 
of  increased  nutrition  and  strength ;  and  to  remem* 
ber  that  the  point  at  which  these  results  are  to  be 
obtained  is  not  the  same  in  any  two  individuals, 
and  can  be  discovered  only  by  experience  and  care- 
ful observation. 

For  giving  strength  to  the  chest,  fencing  is  a  good 
exercise  for  boys,  but  the  above  limit  ought  never 
to  be  exceeded,  as  it  often  is,  by  measuring  the 
length  of  a  lesson  by  the  hour-hand  of  a  clock,  in- 
stead of  its  effects  on  the  constitution.  Shuttlecock, 
as  an  exercise  which  calls  into  play  the  muscles  of 
the  chest,  trunk,  and  arms,  is  also  very  beneficial, 
and  would  be  still  more  so  were  it  transferred  to  the 
open  air.  After  a  little  practice,  it  can  be  played 
with  the  left  as  easily  as  with  the  right  hand,  and 
is,  therefore,  very  useful  in  preventing  curvature, 
and  giving  vigour  to  the  spine  in  females.  The 
play  called  the  graces  is  also  well  adapted  for  ex- 
panding the  chest,  and  giving  strength  to  the  mus- 
cles of  the  back,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being 
practicable  in  the  open  air. 

Dumb-bells  are  less  in  repute  than  they  were  some 
years  ago,  but  when  they  are  not  too  heavy,  and  the 
various  movements  gone  through  are  not  too  eccen- 
tric or  difficult,  they  are  very  useful.  They  do 
harm  occasionally,  from  their  weight  being  disprp- 
portioned  to  the  weak  frames  which  use  them  ;  in 


DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    EXERCISE.  135 

which  case  they  pull  down  the  shoulders  by  dint  of 
mere  dragging.  When  this  or  any  other  exercise  is 
resorted  to  in  the  house,  the  windows  ought  to  be 
thrown  open,  so  as  to  make  the  nearest  possible  ap- 
proach to  the  external  air. 

Reading  aloud  and  recitation  are  more  useful  and 
invigorating  muscular  exercises  than  is  generally 
imagined,  at  least  when  managed  with  due  regard 
to  the  natural  powers  of  the  individual,  so  as  to 
avoid  effort  and  fatigue.  Both  require  the  varied 
activity  of  most  of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  to  a  de- 
gree of  which  few  are  conscious,  till  their  attention 
is  turned  to  it.  In  forming  and  undulating  the  voice, 
not  only  the  chest  but  also  the  diaphragm  and  ab- 
dominal muscles  are  in  constant  action,  and  com- 
municate to  the  stomach  and  bowels  a  healthy  and 
agreeable  stimulus ;  and,  consequently,  where  the 
voice  is  raised  and  elocution  rapid,  as  in  many  kinds 
of  public  speaking,  the  muscular  effort  comes  to  be 
•Ten  more  fatiguing  than  the  mental,  especially  to 
Viose  who  are  unaccustomed  to  it,  and  hence  the 
copious  perspiration  and  bodily  exhaustion  of  popu- 
lar orators  and  preachers.  When  care  is  taken, 
jiowever,  riot  to  carry  reading  aloud  or  reciting  so 
far  at  one  time  as  to  excite  the  least  sensation  of 
soreness  or  fatigue  in  the  chest,  and  it  is  duly  re- 
peated, it  is  extremely  useful  in  developing  and 
giving  tone  to  the  organs  of  respiration,  and  to  the 
general  system.  To  the  invigorating  effects  of  this 
kind  of  exercise,  the  celebrated  and  lamented  Cu- 
vier  was  in  the  habit  of  ascribing  his  own  exemp- 
tion from  consumption,  to  which,  at  the  time  of  his 
appointment  to  a  professorship,  it  was  believed  he 
would  otherwise  have  fallen  a  sacrifice.  The  exer- 
cise of  lecturing  gradually  strengthened  his  lungs, 
and  improved  his  health  so  much  that  he  was  never 
afterward  threatened  with  any  serious  pulmonary 
disease.  But,  of  course,  this  happy  result  followed 
only  because  the  exertion  of  lecturing  was  not  too 


136  DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF   EXERCISE. 

great  for  the  then  existing  condition  of  his  lungs. 
Had  the  delicacy  of  which  he  complained  been  fur- 
ther advanced,  the  fatigue  of  lecturing  would  only 
have  accelerated  his  fate,  and  this  must  never  be 
lost  sight  of  in  practically  applying  the  rules  of  ex- 
ercise. 

It  appears,  then,  from  the  foregoing  remarks,  that 
the  most  perfect  of  all  exercises  are  those  sports 
which  combine  free  play  of  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body,  mental  excitement,  and  the  unrestrained  use 
of  the  voice ;  and  to  such  sports,  accordingly,  are 
the  young  so  instinctively  addicted,  that  nothing 
but  the  strictest  vigilance  and  fear  of  punishment 
can  deter  them  from  engaging  in  them  the  moment 
the  restraint  of  school  is  at  an  end.  Many  parents, 
absorbed  in  their  own  pursuits,  forgetful  of  their  own 
former  experience,  and  ignorant  that  such  are  the 
benevolent  dictates  of  Nature,  abhor  these  whole- 
some outpourings  of  the  juvenile  voice,  and  lay  re- 
strictions upon  their  children,  which,  by  preventing 
the  full  development  of  the  lungs  and  muscles,  inflict 
permanent  injury  upon  them  in  the  very  point  where 
in  this  climate  parents  are  most  anxious  to  protect 
them.  In  accordance  with  this,  we  find  that  what 
are  called  wild  romping  boys  or  girls,  or  those  who 
break  through  all  such  restrictions,  often  turn  out 
the  strongest  and  healthiest ;  while  those  who  sub- 
mit generally  become  more  delicate  as  they  grow 
older. 

Enough  has,  I  trust,  been  said  to  enable  any  ra- 
tional parent  or  teacher  to  determine  the  fitness  of 
the  different  kinds  of  muscular  exercise,  and  to  adapt 
the  time,  manner,  and  degree  of  each  to  every  indi- 
vidual under  his  care  :  but  before  taking  leave  of  the 
subject,  and  with  a  view  to  impress  the  more  deeply 
upon  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  practical  importance 
of  the  principles  inculcated  in  the  preceding  pages, 
I  cannot  refrain  from  subjoining  a  case  which  affords 
an  extremely  apposite  illustration  of  almost  every 


DIFFERENT   KINDS    OF    EXERCISE.  137 

one  of  them.  The  particulars  were  furnished  to  me 
by  a  young  friend  who  was  allowed  to  peruse  the 
manuscript  of  these  pages,  and  who,  as  himself  the 
subject  of  the  case,  was  struck  with  the  perfect  ac- 
cordance between  his  own  experience  and  the  doc- 
trines here  expounded.  It  is  proper  to  keep  in  view 
that  at  the  time  of  this  experiment,  my  friend  was 
about  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  growing  rapidly. 
After  having  passed  the  winter,  closely  engaged  in 
a  sedentary  profession,  and  unaccustomed  to  much 
exercise,  he  was  induced  by  the  beauty  of  returning 
spring  to  dedicate  a  day  to  seeking  enjoyment  in  a 
country  excursion ;  and  for  that  purpose  set  off  one 
morning  in  the  month  of  May,  without  previous  pre- 
paration, to  walk  to  Haddington  by  way  of  North 
Berwick, — a  distance  of  thirty- four  miles.  Being  at 
the  time  entirely  unacquainted  with  physiology,  he 
was  not  aware  that  the  power  of  exerting  the  muscles 
depended  in  any  degree  upon  the  previous  mode  of 
life,  but  thought  that  if  a  man  was  once  able  to  walk 
thirty  miles,  he  must  necessarily  continue  to  possess 
the  same  power,  under  all  circumstances,  while 
youth  and  health  remained.  The  nervous  stimulus 
arising  from  his  escape  from  the  desk,  and  from  the 
expected  delights  of  the  excursion,  carried  him 
briskly  and  pleasantly  over  the  ground  for  the  first 
twelve  miles,  but  then  naturally  began  to  decrease. 
Unfortunately  the  next  part  of  the  road  lay  through 
a  dull,  monotonous  and  sandy  tract,  presenting  no 
object  of  interest  to  the  mind,  and  no  variety  of  any 
description ;  so  that  the  mental  stimulus,  already 
greatly  impaired  in  intensity,  became  still  weaker. 
Being  alone,  his  intellect  and  feelings  could  not  be 
excited  by  the  pleasures  of  companionship  and  con- 
versation :  weariness  consequently  increased  at  every 
step;  and  long  before  his  arrival  at  North  Berwick 
(twenty-five  miles),  "  every  vestige  of  enjoyment  had 
disappeared,  time  seemed  to  move  at  a  marvellous 
tardy  pace>  andevery  mile  appeared  doubled  in  length.* 
119 


138  DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF   EXERCISE. 

Not  being  aware  that  excessive  exercise  without 
a  succeeding  period  of  repose  is  equally  unfavourable 
to  sleep  and  digestion,  and  having  a  lively  recol- 
lection of  the  pleasures  and  refreshment  consequent 
upon  eating  a  good  dinner  with  an  appetite  whetted 
by  a  proper  degree  of  bodily  labour  in  the  open  air, 
he  looked  forward  with  confidence  to  some  recom- 
pense and  consolation  for  his  toils  when  dinner 
should  make  its  appearance.  In  this,  however,  he 
was  doubly  disappointed  ;  for  from  having  started 
with  too  light  a  breakfast,  and  walked  so  far,  his 
digestive  organs  were,  in  common  with  every  part 
of  his  system,  so  much  impaired,  that  he  looked 
upon  the  viands  placed  before  him  almost  without 
appetite  ;  and  as  they  were  in  themselves  not  re- 
markably nutritive  or  digestible,  he  infringed  still 
further  that  condition  of  muscular  action  which  con- 
sists in  a  full  supply  of  nourishing  arterial  blood, 
made  from  plenty  of  nutritious  food, — a  condition 
which  I  have  stated  to  be  especially  important  in 
youth  and  during  growth. 

After  a  rest  of  two  hours,  and  taking  a  moderate 
allowance  of  wine,  which,  however,  he  says, "  seemed 
to  have  lost  its  ancient  virtue  of  imparting  cheerful- 
ness to  the  human  heart,"  he  set  out  to  complete  the 
remaining  ten  miles  to  Haddington.  The  country 
was  far  more  beautiful  and  varied,  but  the  charms  of 
nature  had,  by  this  time,  lost  all  attractions,  for  our 
pedestrian  was  "  now  wholly  occupied  in  counting 
the  tedious  miles  yet  to  be  traversed,  and  in  making 
a  pious  vow  that  this  pleasure-excursion,  though  not 
the  first,  should  certainly  be  the  last  in  his  life." 
Being  reduced  to  the  utmost  degree  of  exhaustion, 
it  required  an  extraordinary  effort  to  persevere ; 
but  at  last  he  arrived  at  Haddington,  in  a  state  of 
exquisite  misery.  Unable  to  read  from  fatigue,  and 
having  nobody  to  converse  with,  he  sought  refuge 
in  bed  at  an  early  hour,  in  the  expectation  that  "  tired 
Nature's  sweet  restorer  balmy  sleep,"  would  visit 


INVOLUNTARY    MUSCLES.  139 

hW  t  )uch  and  bring  him  relief.  But  in  accordance 
vii,i  what  is  mentioned  on  page  118,  he  tossed  and 
tvm.l  ed  incessantly  till  four  in  the  morning,  a  period 
of  be  fen  hours,  after  which  sleep  came  on.  Next 
day  my  youthful  friend  returned  home  in  the  stage- 
coach, wiser,  at  least,  if  not  the  happier,  for  his 
pleasure-excursion ;  and  now  makes  the  observation, 
that  if  he  had  been  instructed  in  the  least  degree  in 
the  nature  of  the  human  constitution,  he  would  never 
for  a  moment  have  entertained  an  expectation  of 
enjoyment  from  a  proceeding  so  utterly  in  defiance 
of  all  the  laws  of  exercise,  as  that  of  which  he  reaped 
the  unpalatable  fruits.  He  adds  justly,  that  the  num- 
ber of  young  men  who  suffer  in  a  similar  way  is  by 
no  means  small,  and  that  he  has  reason  to  be  thank- 
ful that  he  has  not,  like  some  of  his  companions, 
carried  his  transgression  so  far  as  permanently  to 
injure  health,  or  even  sacrifice  life. 

My  aim  being  practical  utility,  I  have  said  nothing 
in  this  place  on  the  subject,  of  what  are  called  the 
Involuntary  Muscles,  or  those  over  which  the  will 
has  no  power,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Voluntary, 
or  those  which  obey  the  direction  of  the  will.  Most 
of  the  involuntary  muscles  are  the  agents  of  im- 
portant vital  functions,  which  are  carried  on  by  them 
unconsciously  to  ourselves,  and  which  it  would  have 
been  dangerous  to  leave  under  our  control.  The 
chief  of  them  is  the  heart,  which  goes  on  in  one 
unvarying  round  of  alternate  contraction  and  re- 
laxation from  the  commencement  till  the  termination 
of  existence.  The  next  in  importance  are  those 
connected  with  respiration,  which,  like  the  heart, 
continue  to  act  by  night  and  by  day  for  the  whole 
period  of  a  long  life  without  weariness  and  without 
interruption.  The  muscular  fibres  of  the  stomach, 
bowels,  bladder,  and  other  viscera  are  excellent 
examples  of  the  same  class ;  and  the  beneficence  of 
Providence  in  withdrawing  them  from  our  control 
cannot  be  sufficiently  admired. — Had  the  action  of 


140         STRUCTURE  OF  BONES. 

the  heart  and  respiratory  muscles  depended  on  the 
will,  as  that  of  the  muscles  of  locomotion  do,  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  process  of  breathing 
would  both  have  ceased  whenever  sleep  or  any 
other  cause  overcame  the  power  of  attention,  arid 
life  would  in  consequence  have  been  extinguished. 

From  the  different  constitution  of  the  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscles,  it  is  clear  that  the  former 
were  designed  for  alternate  activity  and  repose. 
Had  it  so  pleased  the  Creator,  He  could  as  easily 
have  rendered  the  one  set  of  muscles  incapable  of 
fatigue,  as  he  has  actually  rendered  the  other ;  but 
then  the  powers  of  man  would  not  have  been  in 
harmony  with  the  purpose  of  his  existence.  Inces- 
sant muscular  activity  would  not  only  have  been 
incompatible  with  the  highest  human  enjoyment, — 
that  arising  from  the  gratification  of  the  moral  and 
intellectual  faculties, — but  it  would  have  lacked  ob- 
jects on  which  to  expend  itself  usefully,  and,  un- 
guided  by  intellect,  would  only  have  served  to  over- 
turn and  destroy  the  best  provisions  of  nature  for  our 
happiness. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Bones  essential  to  Motion,  and  to  the  Security  of  the  Vital 
^     Organs — The  Skeleton — Bones  are  composed  of  Animal  and 
,     of  Earthy  Matter— The  Animal  Part  the  Seat  of  their  Vitality 
—The  Proportions  between  these  vary  at  different  Periods  of 
Life — Vessels,  Nerves,  Life,  Growth,  and  Decay  of  Bones — 
Advantages  of  their  Vitality  and  Insensibility — Their  Adapta- 
tion to  contained  Parts — Conditions  of  Health — Necessity  of 
Exercise. 

THE  hardness,  strength,  and  insensibility  which 
form  the  distinguishing  properties  of  healthy  bones 
fit  them  in  a  remarkable  degree  for  serving  as  a  basis 


STRUCTURE    OF    BONES*  141 

of  support  to  the  softer  and  more  active  textures  of 
the  body.  By  their  means,  the  human  frame  is  ena- 
bled to  unite  the  most  finished  symmetry  of  form 
with  the  most  perfect  freedom  of  motion  and  secu- 
rity to  life. 

Some  of  the  bones,  such  as  those  which  compose 
the  scull  and  the  socket  for  the  eye,  are  designed 
exclusively  for  the  protection  of  important  organs 
contained  within  them.  But  by  far  the  greater 
number  are  constructed  with  a  direct  reference  to 
voluntary  motion,  and  only  incidentally  serve  for  the 
purposes  of  protection. 

In  proportion  to  the  variety  of  movements  which 
any  piece  of  mechanism  is  required  to  perform,  its 
component  parts  must  be  numerous  and  varied. 

Considered  in  this  light,  the  animal  frame  is  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  combinations  of  machinery. 
No  production  of  art  can  be  compared  with  it  for 
the  multiplicity  and  nicety  of  its  evolutions,  and  yet 
all  these  are  executed  simply  by  muscular  power, 
acting  upon  the  bones,  and  changing  their  relative 
positions. 

The  incalculable  variety  of  movements  required 
from  man  is  the  reason  why  the  bones  composing 
the  skeleton  are  so  numerous,  and  each  so  admira- 
bly connected  with  the  others  by  articulations,  con- 
structed so  as  to  admit  of  precisely  that  kind  of 
motion  which  the  animal  requires  from  it,  and  of  no 
other.  The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  are  not 
less  obvious  than  admirable.  Had  the  osseous 
framework  consisted  of  one  entire  piece,  not  only 
would  man  and  animals  have  been  incapable  of  mo- 
tion, but  every  external  shock  would  have  been 
communicated  undiminished  to  the  whole  system : 
whereas,  by  the  division  of  its  parts,  and  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  elastic  cartilages  and  ligaments 
constituting  the  joints,  free  and  extensive  motion  is 
secured,  and  the  impetus  of  every  external  shock  is 
deadened  in  its  force,  and  diffused  over  the  body,  in 


142  DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    SKELETON. 

the  same  way  as  to  a  person  riding  in  a  carriage,  the 
Jolt  of  the  wheel  passing  over  a  stone,  is  diminished 
by  being  diffused  over  the  whole  vehicle,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  elasticity  of  the  springs.  The  safety 
imparted  by  this  arrangement  to  the  delicate  and 
important  vital  organs  is  apt  to  be  lost  sight  of,  from 
the  very  smoothness  with  which  it  enables  us  to 
move  along ;  but  it  will  be  perceived  if  we  reflect  on 
;  the  shock  given  to  the  whole  system  by  taking  a 
single  false  step  in  going  up  or  down  a  stair.  The 
parts  have  then  no  time  to  adapt  themselves  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  moment,  and  to  put  the  proper 
springs  in  play  for  the  equal  distribution  of  the  im- 
petus. Death  has  been  occasioned  by  accidents  of 
this  kind. 

The  fabric  resulting  from  the  connexion  of  all 
these  pieces  in  their  natural  order  of  arrangement 
is  called  the  Skeleton.  When  the  connexion  is 
maintained  by  means  of  the  ligaments  which  bound 
the  pieces  together  during  life,  the  whole  is  called 
a  natural  skeleton  ;  but  if  the  place  of  the  ligaments 
be  supplied  by  wires,  the  skeleton  is  then  said  to  be 
artificial.  The  bones  entering  into  the  composition 
of  the  human  skeleton  exceed  200  in  number.  Each 
is  separate  from,  but  intimately  connected  with,  the 
rest ;  and  of  a  shape,  size,  and  construction  in  ex* 
act  harmony  with  the  kind  and  extent  of  motion 
which  it  is  destined  to  exercise.  Dry  and  uninviting 
as  such  a  subject  may  seem  at  first  sight,  there  are 
found,  nevertheless,  on  closer  examination,  many 
points  of  inquiry  both  interesting  and  instructive,  to 
which  I  shall  briefly  advert. 

The  three  great  divisions  of  the  skeleton  recog- 
nised by  anatomists  are,  the  head,  trunk,  and  extrem- 
ities. The  first  is  well  known  ;  the  second  includes 
the  two  great  cavities,  the  thorax  or  chest,  and  the 
abdomen  or  belly ;  and  the  third  comprises  the  arms 
and  legs,  or  upper  and  lower  extremities. 

Each  of  these  presents  a  structure  beautifully 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    SKELETON.  143 

adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  destined 
The  head  consists  of  the  scull  and  bones  of  the  face. 
The  scull  affords  complete  protection  to  the  brain 


144  DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    SKELETON. 

from  all  ordinary  accidents,  and  also  to  the  organs 
of  hearing,  seeing,  smelling,  and  tasting.  Protec- 
tion and  not  motion  being  the  sole  object  of  its  con- 
struction, the  numerous  bones  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed are  joined  to  each  other,  not  by  moveable 
joints  .ilke  other  bones,  but  by  a  kind  of  dovetailing, 
which  combines  the  solidity  of  continuous  struc- 
ture with  the  advantages  which  their  separation 
gives  in  facilitating  growth,  and  interrupting  the  ex- 
tension to  all,  of  the  injuries  inflicted  on  one. 

The  trunk,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  cut, 
consists  of  the  spine  a  a,  the  ribs  r  r,  the  sternum  x, 
and  the  pelvis  s  s.  The  spine,  vertebral  column,  or 
back-bone,  a  a,  which  supports  all  the  other  parts, 
is  a  very  remarkable  piece  of  mechanism.  It  is 
composed  in  all  of  twenty-four  separate  bones 
called  vertebra,  from  the  Latin  word  verlere  to  turn, 
as  the  body  turns  upon  them  as  on  a  pivot.  Of 
these,  seven,  called  cervical  vertebrae,  belong  to 
the  neck ;  twelve,  connected  with  the  ribs  and 
called  dorsal,  to  the  back ;  and  five,  called  lumbar, 
to  the  loins.  The  base  of  the  column  rests  on  the 
sacrum  u,  which  is  closely  compacted  between  the 
bones  of  the  pelvis  s  s.  The  vertebrae  are  firmly 
bound  to  each  other  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit 
of  flexion  and  extension  and  a  certain  degree  of 
rotation,  while  by  their  solidity  and  firm  attach- 
ment to  each  other  great  strength  is  secured.  Some 
conception  of  this  strength  may  be  formed  when  we 
consider  the  enormous  loads  which  some  athletic 
men  are  able  to  carry  on  their  shoulders,  or  raise  in 
their  hands ;  the  whole  weight  of  which  is  neces- 
sarily borne  by  the  vertebrae  of  the  loins.  As  the 
space  occupied  by  the  abdomen  gives  large  outward 
dimensions  to  this  region  of  the  body,  it  is  only 
upon  reflection  that  we  perceive  that  the  whole 
force  exerted  by  the  human  frame  in  its  most  stren- 
uous efforts  centres  ultimately  in  the  bony  column 
we  are  now  examining 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    SKELETON  145 

While  the  smooth  or  rounded  forepart  or  body  of 
the  vertebrae  affords  support  to  the  superincumbent 
parts,  the  projecting  ridge  behind,  and  rugged  pro- 
cesses at  the  sides,  combine  with  it  to  form  a  large 
tube  or  canal,  extending  from  the  top  to  the  bottom 
of  the  column  in  which  the  spinal  marrow  is  con- 
tained and  protected.  Between  each  of  the  verte- 
brae a  thick  compressible  cushion  of  cartilage  and 
ligament  is  interposed,  which  serves  the  triple  pur- 
pose of  uniting  the  bones  to  each  other,  of  dimin- 
ishing and  diffusing  the  shock  in  walking  or  leaping, 
and  of  admitting  a  greater  extent  of  motion  than  if 
the  bones  were  in  more  immediate  contact. 

The  ribs  rr,  twelve  in  number  on  each  side,  are 
attached  by  their  heads  to  the  spine,  and  by  their 
other  (cartilaginous)  extremities  to  the  sternum  or 
breast-bone  x.  The  seven  uppermost  are  called  true 
ribs,  because  each  of  them  is  connected  directly  with 
the  sternum,  by  means  of  a  separate  cartilage.  The 
five  lower  ribs  are  called  false,  because  one  or  two 
of  them  are  loose  at  one  end,  and  the  cartilages  of 
the  rest  run  into  each  other  instead  of  being  sepa- 
rately prolonged  to  the  breast-bone.  The  use  of 
the  ribs  is  to  form  the  cavity  of  the  chest  for  the  re- 
ception and  protection  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  great 
blood-vessels,  and  to  assist  in  respiration  by  their 
alternate  rising  and  falling.  This  action  enlarges 
and  diminishes  the  size  of  the  chest  and  the  capa- 
city of  the  lungs. 

The  pelvis  s  s  is  formed  by  the  broad  flat  bones 
which  support  the  bowels  and  serve  for  the  articu- 
lation of  the  thigh.  A  general  notion  of  their  ap- 
pearance and  uses  may  be  obtained  from  inspection 
of  the  cut,  which,  however,  does  not  with  perfect 
accuracy  represent  the  more  minute  structure. 

The  bones  of  the  upper  extremities  are,  the  scapula 

or  shoulder-blade  ;  the  clavicle  or  collar-bone  y ;  the 

kumerus  or  arm-bone  I ;  the  radius  d,  and  ulna  e,  or 

bones  of  the  forearm ;  and  the  small  carpal  and  meta- 

N 


146  DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    SKELETON. 

carpal  bones/  and  phalanges  g,  forming  the  wrist, 
hand,  and  fingers. 

The  scapula  is  the  broad  flat  bone  lying  at  the 
upper  part*  of  the  back,  familiarly  known  as  the 
shoulder-blade,  and  so  troublesome  to  many  young 
ladies  by  its  unseemly  projection.  It  serves  to 
connect  the  arm  with  the  trunk  of  the  body,  and 
gives  origin  to  many  of  the  muscles  by  which  the 
former  is  put  in  motion.  The  collar-bone  y  extends 
from  the  breast-bone  outwards  to  the  scapula.  Its 
chief  use  is  to  prevent  the  arms  from  falling  for- 
ward in  front  of  the  body  ;  and  hence  it  is  wanting 
in  the  lower  animals,  whose  superior  extremities  are 
much  closer  to  each  other  than  those  of  man. 

The  humerus  or  arm-bone  b  is  adapted  by  a  kind  of 
ball  and  socket  joint  to  a  corresponding  surface  in 
the  scapula,  and  hence  enjoys  great  latitude  of  mo- 
tion, and  is  somewhat  liable  to  dislocation.  The 
radius  and  ulna  de,  constituting  the  forearm,  are  con- 
nected with  the  humerus  by  a  hinge-like  joint,  which 
admits  readily  of  flexion  and  extension,  but  not  of 
rotation ;  and  as  the  articulation  is  of  a  peculiar  con- 
struction, it  is  rarely  dislocated.  The  movements 
of  pronation  and  supination,  or  turning  round  the 
hand,  are  effected,  not  by  the  elbow-joint,  but  by  the 
radius  d  moving  upon  the  ulna  e,  by  means  of  joints 
formed  for  this  purpose.  The  wrist  and  finger 
joints  are  too  complicated  to  admit  of  explanation 
here. 

The  lower  extremities  consist  of  the  osfemorisor 
thigh-bone  z,  the  patella  or  knee-pan  /,  the  tibia  m 
and  fibula  n,  or  leg  bones ;  and  the  tarsal  and  meta- 
larsalbones  0,  and  phalanges  p,  composing  the  ankle, 
foot,  and  toes. 

The  thigh-bone  i  is  articulated  by  means  of  a  large 
round  head  deeply  sunk  into  a  corresponding  hollow 
in  the  pelvis  at  A,  freedom  of  motion  being  thus 
combined  with  great  security.  The  thigh  may  be 
moved  backwards  and  forwards  as  in  walking ;  and 


COMPOSITION    OF    BONES.  147 

also  outwards  and  inwards,  as  when  sitting1  on 
horseback  or  with  the  legs  crossed.  The  socket 
being-  much  deeper  than  that  of  the  shoulder-joint, 
the  thigh-bone  has  not  the  same  range  of  motion  as 
the  humerus,  but  it  has  proportionally  greater  secu- 
rity. 

The  patella  or  knee-pan  /  is  well  known.  It  is  a 
small  bone,  constituting  the  projection  of  the  knee. 
It  increases  the  power  of  the  muscles  which  extend 
the  leg,  and  protects  the  front  of  the  knee-joint. 
The  tibia  m  is  the  principal  bone  of  the  leg,  and  is 
the  only  one  articulated  with  that  of  the  thigh.  Its 
lower  end  forms  the  projection  at  the  inner  ankle. 
The  fibula  n  is  the  long  slender  bone  at  the  outer 
side  of  the  leg,  the  lower  end  of  which  forms  the 
outer  ankle.  The  tibia  and  fibula  both  contribute  to 
the  formation  of  the  ankle-joint,  which,  like  that  of 
the  knee,  is  almost  limited  to  flexion  and  extension. 
The  tarsal  bones  constituting  the  foot  display  an 
admirable  mechanism,  but  without  plates  any  de- 
scription of  them  would  be  unintelligible.  My  pres- 
ent aim  being  practical  utility,  I  shall  therefore  pass 
over  these  details,  and  rather  lay  before  the  reader 
several  considerations  of  a  more  general  and  directly 
useful  nature. 

Bones  consist  of  two  kinds  of  substances,  viz. 
those  of  an  animal  and  those  of  an  earthy  nature. 
To  the  former  belongs  every  thing  connected  with 
the  life  and  growth  of  bones,  and  to  the  latter  the 
hardness  and  power  of  resistance  by  which  they  are 
characterized. 

The  animal  portion  of  bones  constitutes,  accord- 
ing to  the  analysis  of  Berzelius,  about  32.17  per  cent, 
of  their  substance,  and  consists  chiefly  of  albumen, 
gelatine,  cellular  membrane,  blood-vessels,  nerves, 
and  absorbents.  Of  the  remaining  67  per  cent,  of 
earthy  matter,  nearly  52  parts  consist  of  phosphate, 
and  11  of  carbonate,  of  lime.  The  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  animal  and  earthy  constituents  vary, 


148  GROWTH    OF    BONES. 

however,  according  to  the  period  of  life.  In  in^ 
fancy,  the  animal  portion  greatly  predominates,  and 
consequently  the  bones  are  at  that  age  compara- 
tively soft,  yielding,  and  elastic.  In  middle  life,  the 
proportions  are  more  equally  balanced,  and  while 
the  bones  thereby  acquire  great  hardness  and  solid- 
ity, they  still  preserve  some  elasticity.  In  old  age, 
on  the  contrary,  when  the  earthy  constituents  pre- 
dominate, they  become  dry,  brittle,  and  compara- 
tively lifeless. 

If  a  bone  be  subjected  for  a  time  to  the  action  of 
muriatic  acid,  the  earthy  portion  is  gradually  de- 
composed, and  a  cartilaginous-looking  substance  of 
the  exact  shape  and  size  of  the  bone  is  procured, 
which  is  in  reality  its  animal  constituent.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  bone  be  subjected  to  the  action  of 
fire,  which  decomposes  and  dissipates  the  animal 
elements  but  scarcely  affects  the  earths,  a  white, 
light,  easily  crumbled  mass,  of  the  exact  shape  and 
appearance  of  the  original  bone,  is  procured,  which 
is  simply  the  earthy  part  of  bone,  deprived  of  its 
connecting  membrane.  The  latter  is  called  the  an 
imal  constituent  of  the  bone,  because  it  is  the  pro- 
duct of  animal  life,  and  does  not  exist  in  nature,  ex- 
cept in  the  system  of  animals ;  and  the  former  is 
called  the  earthy  constituent,  because  it  may  and 
does  exist  in  nature,  without  relation  to  life. 

A  very  important  purpose  is  served  by  the  differ- 
ent proportions  which  the  animal  elements  of  bone 
bear  to  the  earthy,  at  different  ages.  In  early  youth, 
when  much  strength  is  not  wanted,  as  the  body  is 
never  exposed  to  severe  efforts,  but  when  a  great 
growth  of  bone  is  required  to  complete  the  develop- 
ment of  the  human  frame,  the  animal  or  living  part 
of  the  bone  is  observed  to  preponderate.  But  in 
middle  life,  when  growth  is  finished,  and  the  powers 
of  resistance  are  at  their  maximum,  and  when  nu- 
trition is  required  only  to  repair  waste,  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  solid  or  earthy,  and  a  smaller  proper « 


RENOVATION    OF    BONES.  149 

tion  of  the  vital  constituents,  becomes  necessary 
In  old  age,  again,  when  the  wants  of  the  system  are 
reversed,  and  when  positive  diminution  of  existing 
masses  is  required  to  put  the  frame  into  harmony 
with  the  shrunk  muscles  and  feebler  powers  of  life, 
the  absorbent  vessels  carry  away  more  of  the  vital 
matter,  leaving  chiefly  the  earth,  which,  being  less 
susceptible  of  change,  requires  scarcely  any  support 
from  within ;  and  hence  the  brittle  and  compact 
hardness  of  the  bones,  and  their  little  capability  of 
uniting  when  fracture  happens  at  an  advanced  pe- 
riod of  life. 

At  birth  many  of  the  bones  are,  properly  speak- 
ing, of  a  cartilaginous  nature.  As  ossification  ad- 
vances, the  cartilage  is  removed  by  the  absorbents, 
and  its  place  supplied  by  a  kind  of  cellular  mem- 
brane, in  the  interstices  of  which  the  earthy  parti- 
cles are  deposited ;  the  two  forming,  by  their  union, 
the  homogeneous  whole  called  Bone.  Although, 
therefore,  it  is  to  the  softer  material  alone  that  vital 
properties  essentially  belong,  it  is  usual  to  speak  of 
the  life,  the  vessels,  and  the  nerves  of  bones,  as  if 
life  belonged  equally  to  the  earthy  and  animal  por- 
tions. This  is  correct  enough  in  reality,  because 
the  union  between  the  earthy  and  animal  tissues  is 
always  the  product  of  life ;  and  the  parts  thus  united 
are,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  living  parts. 

To  carry  on  the  processes  of  waste  and  renova- 
tion, by  which  every  living  structure  is  distinguished, 
all  parts  of  the  body  are  provided,  first,  with  ar- 
teries, conveying  to  them  red  or  nutritive  blood ; 
secondly,  with  exhalants,  by  which  the  new  matter 
is  deposited,  and  which  are  believed  to  be  the  minute 
terminations  of  the  arteries;  thirdly,  with  veins 
by  which  the  blood  is  carried  back  to  the  heart ; 
fourthly,  with  absorbent  vessels,  which  take  up  and 
carry  away  the  waste  particles  to  be  thrown  out  of 
the  system  ;  and,  lastly,  with  nerves  to  supply  all 
these  vessels,  and  the  organs  on  which  they  are  dis- 
N2 


150  CHANGES    OF    BONES. 

tributed,  with  that  nervous  energy  which  is  essential 
to  their  vitality  and  to  their  connexion  with  other 
parts  of  the  system.  The  bones,  insensible  as  they 
may  seem,  possess  all  these  attributes  of  living  and 
organized  parts.  They  are  all  provided  with  blood- 
vessels, with  nerves,  and  with  exhaling  and  absorb- 
ing vessels ;  and  they  are  constantly  undergoing  the 
same  process  of  decay  and  renovation  to  which  all 
other  living  parts  are  subjected. 

That  bones  are  provided  with  blood-vessels  is 
shown  by  the  fact,  that  anatomists  are  able  to  trace 
these  vessels  into  their  substance,  and  to  inject 
those  of  a  young  subject  with  wax,  so  minutely  as 
to  make  the  bones  appear  of  a  lively  red  colour. 
That  they  are  provided  also  with  nerves  is  evident, 
both  from  dissection  and  from  the  effects  of  in- 
juries and  disease.  A  healthy  bone  may  be  cut  or 
sawn  across  without  causing  pain,  but  when  the 
same  bone  becomes  inflamed,  the  most  excruciating 
torture  is  felt.  And  as  sensation  is  the  exclusive 
attribute  of  the  nervous  system,  this  fact  alone 
would  authorize  us  to  assume  their  existence,  even 
although  nervous  fibres  could  not  be  traced  entering 
the  osseous  substance. 

That  the  substance  of  the  bones  is  continually 
undergoing  a  change,  and  that,  while  the  old  parti- 
cles are  withdrawn  by  absorbents,  new  particles  are 
constantly  deposited  by  the  nutrient  or  exhalant  ves- 
sels, is  abundantly  proved  by  the  often  repeated  ex- 
periments of  Duhamel.  If  madder  be  mixed  with 
the  food  of  fowls  for  a  few  days,  and  the  fowls  be 
then  killed,  the  colouring  matter  deposited  by  the 
nutrient  vessels  will  invariably  be  found  to  have 
died  the  bones  of  a  deep  red  ;  and  if  the  madder  be 
withdrawn,  the  bones  will  then  be  found  to  be  less 
and  less  red  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  time 
which  has  been  allowed  to  elapse — evidently  showing 
that  waste  and  renovation  are  constantly  going  on. 

It  may  be  thought,  that  bones  are,  in  their  very 


INSENSIBILITY    OF    BONES.  151 

essence,  so  hard  and  durable  as  to  render  any  such 
supply  of  nourishment  and  change  of  parts  alto- 
gether unnecessary.  But  if  we  look  for  a  moment 
to  the  advantages  consequent  upon  this  order  of 
things,  we  shall  see  abundant  reason  to  abandon 
such  an  opinion. 

It  is  only  by  means  of  the  processes  of  growth 
and  renewal  that  the  bones  can  adapt  themselves 
to  the  wants  and  state  of  the  system.  If  the  bones 
were  not  endowed  with  the  principle  of  life,  the  stat- 
ure of  the  infant  must  have  been  that  of  the  future 
man.  Or  even  supposing  the  osseous  system  to  have 
grown  to  maturity,  and  then  remained  unchanged, 
the  withered  form  of  old  age  would  necessarily  have 
been  oppressed  and  overcome  by  the  large  and  mas- 
sive bones  which  the  vigorous  muscles  of  manhood 
alone  could  easily  put  in  motion.  Had  the  bones 
been  created  unsusceptible  of  internal  change  and 
unendowed  with  life,  it  is  obvious,  that  when  broken 
by  accident  they  must  have  remained  for  ever  dis- 
united, and  therefore  an  encumbrance  instead  of  an 
assistance  to  the  animal.  But  from  possessing  blood- 
vessels of  their  own  to  supply  them  with  nourish- 
ment, and  nerves  to  give  power  of  action  to  those 
blood-vessels,  the  very  irritation  of  the  broken  ends 
is  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  vital 
powers  of  the  injured  parts,  and  producing  that  ex- 
citement which  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a 
new  bond  of  union,  and  for  filling  up  the  gap  that 
would  otherwise  have  remained. 

In  a  state  of  health,  the  bones  are  insensible  to 
pain ;  and  here,  also,  the  most  provident  benevolence 
appears.  For,  surrounded  as  they  are  by  the  softer 
and  more  sensitive  parts,  these  afford  them  ample 
protection,  while  their  insensibility  enables  them  to 
act,  for  any  length  of  time,  without  weariness  or 
pain.  But  when  a  severe  accident  occurs  to  break 
them  asunder  or  destroy  their  texture,  pain  then  be* 
comes  their  kindest  guardian,  and  the  surest  pro- 


152  SENSIBILITY    OF   BONES 

moter  of  their  recovery.  In  such  circumstances, 
indeed,  nothing  can  be  more  truly  benevolent  than 
pain.  It  accompanies  that  inflammation  and  vascu- 
lar activity  without  which  the  work  of  reunion  of 
the  broken  part  cannot  be  accomplished  ;  and  is  the. 
means  of  securing  the  repose  and  quietude  which 
are  essential  to  the  exact  adaptation  of  the  parts  to 
each  other,  and  which  can  be  effected  only  by  caus- 
ing great  pain  to  follow  even  the  slightest  motion. 
Of  such  utility  is  the  inflammation  on  these  occa- 
sions, that  when,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  requi- 
site degree  of  it,  from  want  of  nervous  sensibility  in 
the  part,  does  not  take  place,  and  the  bone  remains 
disunited  for  many  weeks,  surgeons  are  in  the  habit 
of  using  violence  to  produce  the  necessary  stimulus. 
In  this  case  they  either  rub  the  broken  ends  rudely 
against  each  other,  or  introduce  an  instrument  be- 
tween them,  by  which  pain  and  irritation  may  be  ex- 
cited; and  then  reunion  is  accomplished.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  pain  did  not  guard  the  limb  from  mo- 
tion when  the  process  of  recovery  was  going  on, 
the  union  would  be  incessantly  disturbed  by  every 
heedless  and  unavoidable  start  altering  the  relative 
positions  of  the  parts.  This,  also,  is  occasionally 
exemplified  in  practice.  Looking  at  these  facts,  it 
is  impossible  not  to  admire  the  wisdom  and  the  be- 
nevolence manifested  in  the  adaptation  of  the  struc- 
ture of  bones  in  every  particular  to  the  circumstances 
and  occurrences  of  life. 

Another  advantage  arising  from  the  vitality  of 
bones  is  their  susceptibility  of  change  without  in- 
jury to  life.  Thus  it  frequently  happens,  that,  in 
infancy,  water  collects  within  the  head  in  consider 
able  quantity :  but,  in  consequence  of  the  law,  that 
the  form  of  the  scull  accommodates  itself  to  the 
form  and  dimensions  of  its  soft  contents,  the  bones 
yield  to  the  pressure  from  within,  become  larger, 
and,  by  forming  a  larger  cavity,  enable  the  brain  to 
execute  its  functions,  and  life  to  go  on ;  whereas, 


INCREASE    AND    DIMINUTION    OF    BONES.       153 

had  the  scull  been  incapable  of  undergoing  change, 
death  would  have  to  a  certainty  ensued.  The  scull 
owes  this  power  of  adaptation  entirely  to  its  pos- 
sessing vessels  and  nerves,  and  to  its  undergoing  a 
constant  decay  and  renewal,  like  the  other  parts  of 
the  system. 

The  same  phenomena  are  exhibited  by  the  bones 
of  the  chest.  When  tumours  arise,  or  collections 
of  fluid  take  place  within  that  cavity,  there  is  a 
constant  effort  on  the  part  of  nature  to  take  advan- 
tage of  this  constitution  of  the  bones,  and  to  cause 
them  so  to  expand,  as  to  save  the  lungs  and  heart 
from  hurtful  pressure,  and  allow  respiration  and 
circulation  to  go  on  unimpaired. 

In  the  opposite  circumstances  of  diminished  vol- 
ume of  the  soft  contents  of  the  cavities,  the  same 
law  enables  the  bone  to  decrease  in  a  correspond- 
ing proportion,  and  consequently  to  continue  the 
protection  which  it  affords  to  its  contained  organs. 
Thus,  were  the  bone  to  remain  unaltered,  when,  in 
cases  of  disease  and  in  old  age,  the  brain  diminishes 
in  size,  the  cavity  of  the  scull  would  be  only 
partially  filled,  and  the  brain,  so  far  from  being  pro- 
tected, would  be  jolted  backwards  and  forwards,  up- 
wards and  downwards  by  every  motion  of  the  head 
or  body,  till  its  structure  should  be  utterly  destroyed, 
and  life  itself  extinguished. 

To  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  laws  of 
nutrition  of  organized  bodies,  and  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  notice  the  hard  and  unyielding  nature  of 
bone,  without  having  any  adequate  perception  of 
the  particular  uses  of  the  adaptation  of  the  hard 
to  the  soft  parts,  this  adaptation  may  seem  strange 
and  improbable ;  but  a  little  consideration  will  satisfy 
every  one  that  it  could  not  have  been  otherwise. 

In  infancy,  when  the  lungs  are  imperfectly  devel- 
oped, the  chest  is  narrow,  flat,  and  confined,  and  the 
ribs  almost  in  close  juxtaposition.  In  youth  and 
in  middle  age,  when  force  and  activity  require  ful- 


154  ADAPTATION    OF    BON^S. 

ness  and  vigour  of  respiration,  the  lungs  enlarge,  and, 
to  give  them  scope,  the  chest  br  omes  full,  broad, 
and  capacious,  in  old  age,  again,  when  the  season 
of  active  exertion  is  over,  and  the  strength  decays, 
the  broad  shoulders  and  capacious  chest  of  man- 
hood gradually  disappear,  and  a  totally  different 
form  occupies  its  place.  Now,  at  all  these  periods, 
the  bones  are  the  parts  which,  by  their  alteration, 
serve  as  an  index  of  the  changes  going  on  within  ; 
and  on  this  large  scale,  the  difference  in  their  form 
is  so  great  that  it  must  be  obvious  to  all. 

Where  the  whole  of  the  soft  contents  of  the  bony 
cavity  increase  in  size,  as  happens  in  the  case  of 
water  in  the  head,  the  result  is,  as  already  mentioned, 
an  expansion  from  interstitial  growth  of  the  osseous 
covering.  But  where  the  tumour  or  pressure  is 
limited  to  a  small  part,  a  process  of  a  different  kind 
often  takes  place,  which  has  also  the  preservation  of 
life  for  its  object,  and  which  is  accomplished  by  another 
of  the  natural  actions, — absorption.  When  a  bone, 
say  of  four  inches  square,  is  required  gradually  to  ex- 
pand itself,  so  as  to  protect  a  surface  of  six  inches 
or  of  double  the  extent,  this  is  accomplished  by  the 
gradual  removal  of  the  old,  and  the  deposition  of 
new  and  additional  particles,  on,  as  it  were,  a  new 
and  enlarged  mould.  But  in  the  other  case,  where 
the  pressure  is  very  limited — where,  for  instance,  a 
small  tumour  develops  itself  on  the  surface  of  the 
brain,  which,  if  allowed  to  grow  within  unyielding 
walls,  would  soon  cause  death  by  pressure  on  the 
brain — the  ordinary  process  of  absorption  becomes 
greatly  excited,  and  gradually  eats  away  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  bone  over  the  tumour,  which  then 
protrudes  externally,  and  relieves  the  brain  within 
from  pressure  which  would  have  been  fatal  to  it. 

I  have  already  stated,  that  besides  a  large  pro- 
portion of  earthy  matter,  which  gives  to  them  dry- 
ness  and  hardness,  bones  contain  a  large  quantity 
of  animal  matter,  which  is  essential  to  their  constitu- 


ABSORBENT  VESSELS  OF  BONES.       155 

lion.  In  early  life,  this  cartilaginous  matter  pre- 
ponderates, and  the  bones  are  consequently  less 
heavy,  more  pliable  and  eiastic,  and  possessed  of 
greater  vitality.  In  old  age,  again,  the  earthy  parts 
predominate,  and  with  them  fragility,  insensibility, 
and  a  lower  degree  of  life.  It  is  from  this  difference 
that  bones  broken  in  youth  reunite  in  one-third  of 
the  time  necessary  for  their  reunion  in  advanced 
life. 

In  some  unhealthy  states  of  the  system,  the  pro- 
portion  of  earthy  matter  is  greatly  diminished,  and  in 
some  parts  it  is  even  altogether  removed.  The  bones 
become  soft,  compressible,  and  incapable  of  affording 
protection  or  support  to  other  parts,  to  such  a  degree 
that  instances  have  occurred  in  which  the  lower 
extremities  could  be  twisted  behind,  as  if  made  of 
wire.  A  slighter  degree  of  the  same  affection  is 
common  in  weak,  rickety  children ;  and  hence  the 
deformity  of  limbs  so  often  occurring  from  absolute 
insufficiency  of  the  bones  to  support  the  weight  of 
the  body. 

The  practical  application  to  be  made  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  constitution  of  the  bones,  as  parts  of 
our  animal  frame,  and  as  governed  by  the  ordinary 
organic  laws,  will  now  be  obvious.  Their  health 
we  have  seen  to  depend  on  the  regular  supply  of 
nourishment 'by  the  blood-vessels,  on  a  due  supply 
of  nervous  energy  by  the  nerves,  and  on  a  due 
balance  between  the  action  of  the  nutrient  and  ab- 
sorbent or  removing  vessels.  To  the  steady  obser- 
vation of  these  conditions,  therefore,  we  are  bound 
to  attend. 

It  is  a  common  fault  to  consider  the  study  of  an 
organ  or  function  complete,  when  we  have  viewed 
it  on  all  sides  as  an  isolated  part,  without  regarding 
its  external  relations  as  constituting  an  essential 
portion  of  its  history.  Thus,  although  we  examine 
the  structure  and  functions  of  the  heart,  and  see 
that  it  is  a  muscle,  and  that  its  office  is  to  contract ; 


156  DISEASES    OF    SONES. 

our  knowledge  is  incomplete  if  we  do  not  go  still 
further,  and  see  that  blood  is  the  stimulant  which 
causes  its  contractile  power  to  act.  And  in  like 
manner  with  the  eye,  whose  relations  to  light  are 
as  essential  a  part  of  its  constitution  as  the  trans- 

Karency  of  its  membranes  or  the  convexity  of  its 
3ns.  Now  in  the  case  of  the  bones  we  are  apt  to 
describe  their  hardness,  their  mobility,  and  other 
qualities*  without  sufficiently  adverting  to  the  fact 
that,  being  organs  of  resistance  and  motion,  the 
frequent  and  regular  performance  of  motion  and  re- 
sistance is  as  essential  to  their  well-being  as  blood 
is  to  the  heart,  air  to  the  lungs,  or  light  to  the  eyes. 
And,  accordingly,  when  that  condition  is  not  fulfilled, 
the  bones  become  feeble,  diseased,  and  unfit  for 
their  functions,  just  as  the  softer  parts  of  the  body 
do.  In  practice*  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
be  fully  aware  of  this  fact. 

It  is  familiar  to  the  professional  mind,  that  a  part 
deprived  of  that  exercise  or  action  which  nature 
destined  it  to  fulfil  becomes  weakened,  diminishes  in 
size,  and  at  last  shrivels  and  alters  so  much  in  appear- 
ance as  not  to  be  recognisable.  Thus,  if  an  artery — 
the  large  artery  which  supplies  the  arm  with  blood,  for 
example — be  tied,  and  the  flow  of  blood  obstructed* 
a  change  of  structure  immediately  begins,  and  goes 
on  progressively,  till,  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks, 
what  was  formerly  a  hollow  elastic  tube  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  ligamentous  inelastic  cord.  A 
muscle  condemned  to  inaction  loses  half  its  bulk  in  a 
comparatively  short  time  ;  and  if  long  unexercised* 
at  last  loses  entirely  its  power  of  contraction  and 
muscular  appearance.  The  same  rule  holds  with 
all  other  parts  of  the  system,  and*  in  an  especial 
manner,  even  with  the  hard  and  apparently  unalter- 
able fabric  of  the  bones.  It  is  ascertained  by  ex- 
tensive experience,  that  complete  inaction,  besides 
diminishing  the  size,  injures  the  structure  of  bone 
so  much  as  to  deprive  it  of  its  hardness,  and 


EXERCISE   AND   NUTRITION.  35t 

fender  it  susceptible  of  being  cut  with  a  knife. 
Now,  what  is  strongly  marked  in  the  extreme  case 
is  not  less  active,  although  it  may  be  less  palpably 
apparent  in  cases  where  there  is  great,  though  not 
total,  deprivation  of  exercise  :  and  hence  one  cause 
of  the  bad  health,  crooked  spines,  and  deformed 
figures,  of  which  the  habitual  restraint  and  condem- 
nation to  attitude  in  modern  education  lay  so  wide- 
spreading  and  so  deep  a  foundation, — evils  which 
could  never  stand  for  a  moment  before  knowledge. 
Or  reason.  The  bones  are  the  solid  organs  of  mo- 
tion ;  and  unless  they  be  duly  exercised  in  effecting . 
motion,  they,  like  the  muscles  which  move  them, 
suffer  and  decay  in  virtue  of  that  universal  law 
which  requires  exercise  as  the  condition  of  their 
well-being — as  the  stimulus  necessary  to  their  ex- 
istence. 

In  early  youth,  in  particular,  when  every  part 
teems  with  life  and  activity,  and  is  almost  hourly 
acquiring  an  increase  of  dimensions,  the  nutrient 
system  is  in  a  state  of  unceasing  and  powerful 
action,  and  a  rich  and  abundant  supply  of  food  is  in- 
dispensable to  health.  Nature  points  out  this  fact, 
in  the  keen  and  vigorous  appetite  and  strong  powers 
of  digestion  which  every  healthy  child  uniformly 
manifests.  To  put  ourselves  in  accordance  with  the 
intention  of  nature,  at  this  period  of  life,  it  is,  there- 
fore, absolutely  necessary  to  supply  in  abundance 
wholesome  and  nourishing  food.  The  non-fulfil- 
ment of  this  condition,  so  often  seen  in  times  of 
distress  among  the  labouring  classes,  gives  rise  to 
that  tumid  softness  and  consequent  weakness  of  the 
bones  and  soft  parts,  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  rickets ;  and  which,  if  it  continue  till  maturity, 
t.  e.  during  the  years  of  active  nutrition,  invariably 
leads  to  distortion  and  deformity. 

The  next  requisite  for  the  development  and  health 
of  the  osseous  system  is  adequate  exercise ;  and 
this  condition  cannot  be  infringed  with  impunity 
O 


158    CONDITIONS  OF  HEALTH  IN  BONES. 

any  more  than  the  former.  Wherever  matter  is  the 
subject,  action  implies  waste  of  materials,  and  unless 
this  waste  be  made  up  by  proportionate  supplies, 
exercise  leads  to  speedy  decay,  such  as  we/see  take 
place  where  the  exercise  has  been  carried  beyond 
the  limits  of  nature,  and  beyond  what  any  supply 
can  compensate.  Inaction,  on  the  contrary,  implies 
almost  stagnation,  and  is  always  attended  by  dimi- 
nution of  the  vital  functions ;  as  is  exemplified,  in 
the  extreme  degree,  in  hybernating  animals,  which 
pass  months  in  sleep  without  food  and  almost  with- 
out breathing, — and  also  in  frogs  found  alive  in 
stones  and  trees,  where  they  must  have  been  dor- 
mant for  a  great  number  of  years.  Inactive  parts, 
then,  require  little  nutrition,  because  there  is  little 
expenditure  ;  a"nd  they  require  little  force  or  energy, 
because  it  would  be  not  only  useless  but  detrimental 
to  them. 

By  a  law  of  the  constitution,  manifestly  arranged 
with  relation  to  this  principle,  when  any  part  of  the 
system  is  active,  it  attracts  to  itself,  by  the  simple 
stimulus  of  that  activity,  an  increased  supply  of 
blood  and  nervous  energy.  The  former  enables  it 
to  repair  the  waste  of  substance  which  action  pro- 
duces, and  the  latter  gives  an  increased  tone  in  har- 
mony with  the  greater  call  made  on  its  powers.  If 
the  exercise  is  momentary  and  is  not  repeated,  the 
extraordinary  flow  of  blood  soon  disappears,  and 
the  nervous  power  falls  to  the  usual  standard :  but 
if  it  is  continued  for  a  time,  and  is  recurred  to  at 
regular  intervals,  a  more  active  nutrition  is  estab- 
lished ;  a  permanently  greater  supply  of  blood 
enters  the  vessels,  even  during  the  intervals  of  in- 
action ;  and  an  increase  of  development  takes  place, 
attended  with  increased  facility  and  force  of  func- 
tion. 

If,  again,  any  part  is  not  duly  exercised,  there  is 
no  local  stimulus  to  attract  a  large  supply  of  blood 
or  abundant  flow  of  the  nervous  fluid  ;  there  is  no 


CONDITIONS  OF  HEALTH  IN  BONKS.    159 

activity  of  nutrition,  no  perfection  of  development, 
and  no  force  of  function.  And  hence,  in  partial  ex- 
ercise, there  is  always  predominance  of  some  part 
over  others  ;  the  one  too  strong,  the  other  too 
feeble.  In  the  muscular  system,  the  arms  of  a 
blacksmith,  contrasted  with  those  of  a  dancing- 
master,  are  a  sufficient  illustration. 

This  law  of  increased  afflux  of  fluids  and  in- 
creased nutrition  to  exercised  parts,  and  of  diminished 
afflux  and  nutrition  to  inactive  parts,  is  not  only 
highly  important  in  its  practical  consequences,  but 
in  exact  and  obvious  accordance  with  the  plainest 
principles  of  reason.  By  this  benevolent  arrange- 
ment, parts  acting  strongly  receive  large  supplies, 
and  parts  doing  nothing  are  left  in  the  state  of 
weakness  befitting  the  demands  made  upon  them. 
To  every  one  who  sees  the  principle,  it  must  appear 
the  height  of  folly  to  expect  great  nutrition  and 
great  energy  to  follow  inaction,  and  vice  versd ;  and 
yet  this  is  what,  in  ignorance,  is  daily  looked  for  by 
mankind  at  large. 

This  law  of  exercise,  as  influencing  nutrition  and 
function,  is  universal  in  its  application,  and  applies 
to  the  osseous  as  much  as  to  any  other  system.  If 
the  bones  are  duly  exercised  in  their  function  of  ad- 
ministering to  motion,  then  active  nutrition  goes  on, 
and  they  acquire  dimensions,  strength,  and  solidity. 
If  they  are  not  exercised,  the  stimulus  required  for 
the  supply  of  blood  to  them  becomes  insufficient ; 
imperfect  nutrition  takes  place ;  and  debility,  soft- 
ness, and  unfitness  for  their  office  follow  in  the 
train.  This  cause  of  defective  formation  is  most 
active  and  most  commonly  seen  in  the  bones  of  the 
spine  in  growing  girls,  who  are  denied  free  exercise 
in  that  part ;  and  the  consequent  weakness  in  the 
bones  and  cartilages,  as  well  as  in  the  muscles,  is  a 
very  frequent  cause  of  the  swollen  joints  and  cur- 
vature in  the  bones  of  the  limbs  in  young  people, 
which  no  subsequent  care  can  ever  remove. 


160     CONDITIONS  OF  HEALTH  IN  BONES. 

The  beneficial  effects  of  exercise  and  diet  in  im- 
parting solidity  to  the  bones  have  not  escaped  the 
observation  of  trainers.  Sir  John  Sinclair  ex- 
pressly mentions  that  the  bones  become,  in  a  re- 
markable degree,  harder  and  tougher,  and  less  liable 
to  be  injured  by  blows  or  accidents.  Testimony  of 
this  kind  ought  to  be  of  great  weight,  as  based,  not 
on  theory,  but  on  the  broad  and  well-marked  ex- 
perience of  practical  men.* 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  defective  nu- 
trition may  arise  from  other  causes  than  inadequate 
exercise ;  but  even  then,  the  consequences  attending 
it  are  analogous  in  their  nature.  Among  the  pooi 
it  often  arises  from  deficiency  of  wholesome  food, 
and  from  damp  dark  habitations ;  among  the  rich, 
from  feeble  digestive  and  assimilating  powers,  and 
pampering  in  diet ;  and  also  from  errors  in  clothing, 
and  neglect  of  sufficient  ventilation,  and  due  expo- 
sure to  the  open  air.  Rickets,  softness  of  the  bones, 
and  white  swelling  are  accordingly  observed  to  be 
almost  confined  to  children  belonging  to  one  or  other 
of  these  classes. 

To  understand  more  clearly  the  relative  uses  of 
bones  and  muscles,  we  may  be  allowed  to  use  a 
comparison,  although,  like  all  other  comparisons,  it 
presents  many  points  of  difference.  The  bones  are 
to  the  body  what  the  mast  and  spars  are  to  a  ship ; 
they  give  support  and  the  power  of  resistance  :  and 
the  muscles  are  to  the  bones  what  the  ropes  are  to 
the  masts  and  spars.  It  is  to  the  muscles  that  the 
bones  are  indebted  for  the  power  of  preserving  or 
changing  their  relative  position.  If  the  bones  or 
masts  are  too  feeble  in  proportion  to  the  weight 
which  they  are  required  to  sustain,  then  a  deviation 
from  their  shape  and  position  takes  place ;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  if  the  muscles  or  ropes  are  not  suffi- 
ciently strong  and  well  braced,  then  insufficiency  of 

*  Code  of  Health,  5th  edit.    Appendix,  p.  35. 


CONDITIONS    OF    HEALTH    IN    BONES.  161 

support  must  necessarily  result.  Early  infancy 
affords  an  instance  of  both  imperfections ;  the  bone 
being  infirm,  and  the  muscles  small  and  destitute  of 
true  fleshy  fibres.  The  diseased  state,  called  molli- 
ties  ossium,  or  softness  of  the  bones,  is  an  instance 
of  what  may  be  called  a  weak  mast  of  the  body, 
which  must  yield  if  its  muscles  be  strongly  drawn. 
The  state  of  muscular  debility  consequent  on  fever 
and  many  acute  diseases,  or  even  on  sudden  fright, 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  instance  of  the  inability  of 
the  bones  alone  to  preserve  an  attitude,  or  execute 
motion,  when  the  muscular  system  is  weakened  by 
disease.  These  differences  merit  attention. 

In  the  regular  order  of  nature,  the  maturity  and 
perfection  of  all  organs  and  functions  are  attained 
at  the  precise  time  at  which  each  is  required.  The 
bones  of  the  infant  are  soft,  vascular,  cartilaginous, 
full  of  life,  aud  vigorous  in  growth ;  but  having  no  en- 
ergetic motions  to  perform,  they  possess  little  power 
of  solid  resistance.  In  accordance  with  this  con- 
dition of  the  bones,  the  muscles  which  move  them 
are  small,  gelatinous,  imperfectly  fibrous,  and  little 
capable  of  powerful  contraction.  If  the  bones  had 
been  made  solid  and  heavy  from  the  beginning, 
they  would  not  only  have  been  inert  and  cumbrous 
masses,  destitute  of  muscles  to  put  them  in  motion ; 
but,  from  being  less  vascular  and  less  alive,  they 
could  not  have  grown  with  the  rapidity  necessary 
to  adapt  themselves  to  the  growth  of  the  other  parts 
of  the  system.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  powerful 
muscles  had  existed  from  the  first,  they  would  have 
served  only  to  twist  the  soft  and  yielding  bones  into 
fantastic  shapes.  Or,  if  both  solid  bones  and  strong 
muscles  had  been  given  from  birth,  then  a  complete 
power  of  locomotion  would  have  been  the  result, 
which  from  the  absence  of  intellect  and  of  know- 
ledge of  the  external  world  to  direct  it,  would  have 
led  to  incessant  evils,  if  not  to  speedy  destruction. 
But  as  things  are  arranged,  the  most  profound  wis- 

o  a 


162    CONDITIONS  OF  HEALTH  IN  BONES. 

dom  and  the  purest  benevolence  show  themselves 
in  the  beautiful  adaptation  of  all  the  parts  and  func- 
tions to  each  other  and  to  one  common  end. 

Knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  bones  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  life  is  not  without  its  practical 
uses — particularly  in  regulating  our  treatment  of 
children.  Some  fond  parents,  disregarding  the  fact 
that  the  bones  are  comparatively  soft  and  pliable  in 
infancy,  and  in  their  haste  to  see  the  little  objects 
walk  without  support,  are  continually  soliciting  at- 
tempts at  standing  or  walking,  long  before  the  bones 
have  acquired  sufficient  power  of  resistance,  and  the 
muscles  sufficient  power  of  contraction,  to  cope 
with  the  laws  of  gravitation.  The  natural  conse- 
quence is  a  curvature  of  the  bone,  which  yields  just 
like  an  elastic  stick  bending  under  a  weight.  The 
two  ends  approach  nearer  to  each  other  than  they 
ought  to  do ;  and  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the 
change,  the  muscles  become  shorter  on  one  side, 
and  perhaps  longer  on  the  other,  each  losing  part  of 
its  efficacy  in  the  unnatural  change  which  it  un- 
dergoes. 

From  this  view,  it  will  be  seen  how  hurtful  lead- 
ing-strings must  be.  In  the  first  place,  by  their 
mechanical  force,  they  compress  the  chest  and  im- 
pede respiration  ;  and,  in  the  second,  by  preventing 
the  body  from  falling  to  the  ground,  or  rather  by 
preserving  an  upright  position,  they  cause  the  whole 
weight  to  fall  on  the  bones  of  the  spine  and  lower 
extremities,  which  are  not  fitted  by  nature  to  bear 
the  burden.  From  this  noxious  practice,  flatness 
of  the  chest,  confined  lungs,  distorted  spine,  and  de- 
formed legs  too  often  originate. 

The  impropriety  of  an  indiscriminate  use  of  dumb- 
bells, in  early  life,  will  also  be  easily  understood. 
If  the  weight  of  these  be  disproportioned  to  the 
strength  of  the  bones,  it  is  obvious  that  we  must  pro- 
duce the  same  kind  of  evil  as  by  premature  attempts 
to  walk,  viz.  yielding  of  the  bones,  and  stretching 


CONDITIONS    OF    HEALTH    IN   BONES.          163 

and  relaxation  of  their  connecting  ligaments.  If, 
again,  they  be  disproportionate  to  the  muscular 
power,  their  effect  will  be  to  exhaust  instead  of  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  body. 

From  the  exposition  I  have  given  of  the  laws  of 
exercise,  as  affecting  the  muscular  and  osseous  sys- 
tems, the  absurdity  of  expecting  to  strengthen  either 
the  one  or  the  other  by  the  use  of  stays,  or  by  lying 
for  hours  on  a  horizontal  or  inclined  plane,  will  be 
abundantly  manifest.  There  is  no  royal  road  to 
health  and  strength,  and  no  method  by  which,  while 
exercise  is  dispensed  with,  its  advantages  can  be 
obtained.  In  the  intervals  between  exercise,  reclining 
on  a  plane  is  very  useful  in  delicate  fast-growing 
girls ;  but  it  should  be  continued  only  till  the  feeling 
of  fatigue  goes  off,  and  never  be  resorted  to  for 
hours  in  succession,  as  it  often  is  on  the  false  notion 
of  its  being  conducive  to  strength. 

In  this  chapter,  as  well  as  in  that  on  the  muscles, 
I  have  dwelt  perhaps  too  long  on  the  principles  by 
which  exercise  ought  to  be  regulated ;  but  as  the 
subject  is  little  understood  by  those  who  have  the 
direction  of  youth,  and  as  it  is  of  paramount  import- 
ance, I  am  inclined  to  hope  that  the  tediousness  of 
repetition  may  be  forgiven,  if  clearness  and  convic- 
tion are  obtained. 


164  ARTERIAL   AND   VENOUS   BLOOD. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Arterial  and  venous  Blopd— Nature  of  Respiration— Structure 
of  the  Lungs — Conditions  required  for  healthy  Respiration- 
Sound  original  Constitution — Influence  of  hereditary  Predis- 
position— Of  wholesome  Food,  and  good  Digestion— Of  the 
free  Expansion  of  the  Lungs — Of  Exercise  of  the  Muscles  and 
Voice — Of  Cheerfulness  and  Depression  of  Mind — Of  pure 
Air  and  Ventilation— Examples  of  the  bad  Effects  of  vitiated 
Air — Respiration  the  Source  of  Animal  Heat — Causes  of  de- 
ficient Generation  of  Heat — Removal  of  such  Causes — Direct 
and  indirect  Exercise  of  the  Lungs — Beneficial  Effects  of, 
and  Rules  for  Exercise — Precautions  to  be  observed  in  Dis- 
eases of  the  Lungs,  and  in  Persons  predisposed  to  Con- 
sumption. 

WE  come  next  to  treat  of  the  lungs  and  of  the 
function  of  RESPIRATION  ;  but,  in  order  to  be  clearly 
understood,  I  must  premise  a  few  observations  on 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

The  blood  circulating  through  the  body  is  of  two 
different  kinds ;  the  one  red  or  arterial,  and  the 
other  dark  or  venous  blood.  The  former  alone  is 
capable  of  affording  nourishment  and  of  supporting 
life.  It  is  distributed  from  the  left  side  of  the  heart 
all  over  the  body,  by  means  of  a  great  artery  or 
blood-vessel  called  the  aorta,  which  subdivides  in  its 
course,  and  ultimately  terminates  in  myriads  of  very 
minute  ramifications,  closely  interwoven  with,  and 
in  reality  constituting  a  large  portion  of,  the  texture 
of  every  living  part.  On  reaching  this  extreme  point 
of  its  course,  the  blood  passes  into  equally  minute 
ramifications  of  the  veins,  which,  in  their  turn, 
gradually  coalesce  and  form  larger  and  larger  trunks, 
till  they  at  last  terminate  in  two  large  veins,  by 
which  the  whole  current  of  the  venous  blood  is 
brought  back  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  in  the 


ARTERIAL  AND  VENOUS  BLOOD.       165 

arteries,  and  poured  into  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 
On  examining  the  quality  of  the  blood  in  these  two 
systems  of  vessels,  it  is  found  to  have  undergone  a 
great  change  in  its  passage  from  the  one  to  the 
other.  The  florid  hue  which  distinguishes  it  in  the 
arteries  has  disappeared,  and  given  place  to  the  dark 
colour  characteristic  of  venous  blood.  Its  proper- 
ties, too,  have  changed,  and  it  is  now  no  longer 
capable  of  sustaining  life. 

Two  conditions  are  essential  to  the  reconversion 
Of  venous  into  arterial  blood,  and  to  the  restoration 
of  its  vital  properties.  The  first  is  an  adequate  pro- 
vision of  new  materials  from  the  food,  to  supply  the 
place  of  those  which  have  been  expended  in  nutri- 
tion ;  and  the  second  is  the  free  exposure  of  the  venous 
blood  to  the  atmospheric  air. 

The  first  condition  is  fulfilled  by  the  chyle  or  nu- 
trient principle  of  the  food  being  regularly  poured 
into  the  venous  blood,  just  before  it  reaches  the 
right  side  of  the  heart ;  and  the  second,  by  the  very 
important  process  of  respiration,  which  takes  place 
in  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  and  which  it  is  our 
present  object  to  explain. 

The  venous  blood,  having  arrived  at  the  right  side 
of  the  heart,  is  propelled  by  the  contraction  of  that 
organ  into  a  large  artery,  leading  directly,  by  separ- 
ate branches,  to  the  two  lungs,  and  hence  called  the 
pulmonary  artery.*  In  the  innumerable  branches 
of  this  artery  expanding  themselves  throughout  the 
substance  of  the  lungs,  the  dark  blood  is  subjected 
to  the  contact  of  the  air  inhaled  in  breathing ;  and  a 
change  in  the  composition  both  of  the  blood  and  of 

*  Taking  the  nature  of  the  blood  for  our  guide,  the  pulmonary 
artery  ought  to  be  named  the  pulmonary  vein,  for  it  contains 
venous  blood:  but  from  its  structure  and  office  resembling 
those  of  the  arteries,  it  has  been  called  an  artery.  The  pul- 
monary veins,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  arterial  blood,  although 
named  veins.  To  prevent  confusion,  it  is  necessary  to  advert  to 
this  source  of  ambiguity. 


166  NATURE    OF    RESPIRATION. 

the  inhaled  air  takes  place,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  former  is  found  to  have  assumed  its  florid  or 
arterial  hue,  and  to  have  regained  its  power  of  sup- 
porting life.  The  blood  then  enters  minute  venous 
ramifications,  which  gradually  coalesce  into  larger 
branches,  and  at  last  terminate  in  four  large  trunks 
in  the  left  side  of  the  heart ;  whence  the  blood  in  its 
arterial  form  is  again  distributed  over  the  body,  to 
pursue  the  same  course  and  undergo  the  same 
changes  as  before. 

There  are  thus  two  distinct  circulations,  each 
carried  on  by  its  own  system  of  vessels :  the  one, 
from  the  left  side  of  the  heart  to  every  part  of  the 
body,  and  back  to  the  right  side ;  and  the  other, 
from  the  right  side  of  the  heart  to  the  two  lungs, 
and  back  to  the  left.  The  former  has  for  its  object 
nutrition  and  the  maintenance  of  life ;  and  the  latter 
the  restoration  of  the  deteriorated  blood,  and  the 
animalization  or  assimilation  of  the  chyle  from  which 
that  fluid  is  formed. 

As  the  food  cannot  become  a  part  of  the  living 
animal,  or  the  venous  blood  regain  its  lost  proper- 
ties until  they  have  undergone  the  requisite  changes 
in  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  the  function  of  respira- 
tion, by  which  these  are  effected,  is  one  of  pre-emi- 
nent importance  in  the  animal  economy,  and  well 
deserves  the  most  careful  examination.  The  term 
respiration  is  frequently  restricted  to  the  mere  inha- 
lation and  expiration  of  air  from  the  lungs ;  but 
more  generally  it  is  employed  to  designate  the 
whole  series  of  phenomena  which  occurs  in  these 
organs.  The  words  sanguification,  and  aeration  of 
the  blood  are  other  forms  of  expression  occasionally 
used  to  denote  that  part  of  the  process  in  which  the 
blood,  by  exposure  to  the  action  of  the  air,  passes 
from  the  venous  to  the  arterial  state ;  and,  as  the 
chyle  does  not  become  assimilated  to  the  blood 
until  it  has  passed  through  the  lungs,  the  term  san- 
guification, or  blood-making,  is  not  unaptly  applied. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LUNGS.        167 

1  m  quantity  and  quality  of  the  blood  have  a  most 
direct  ,ind  material  influence  upon  the  condition  of 
every  part  of  the  body.  If  the  quantity  sent  to  the 
arm,  for  example,  be  diminished  by  tying  the  artery 
through  which  it  is  conveyed,  the  arm,  being  then 
imperfectly  nourished,  wastes  away,  and  does  not 
regain  its  plumpness  till  the  full  supply  of  blood  be 
restored  In  like  manner,  when  the  quality  of  that 
fluid  is  impaired  by  deficiency  of  food,  bad  digestion, 
impure  air,  or  imperfect  sanguification  in  the  lungs, 
the  body  aad  all  its  functions  become  more  or  less 
disordered-  Thus,  in  consumption,  death  takes 
place  chiefly  in  consequence  of  respiration  not 
being  sufficiently  perfect  to  admit  of  the  formation 
of  proper  blood  in  the  lungs. 

A  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
lungs,  and  of  the  conditions  favourable  to  their 
healthy  action,  is,  therefore,  very  important ;  for  on 
their  welfare  depends  that  of  every  organ  of  the 
body.  And  when  we  recollect  that,  in  the  British 
Isles  alone,  noarly  fifty  thousand  persons  fall  vic- 
tims annually  to  pulmonary  consumption,  and  that 
these  are  chiefly  among  the  young  and  most  gifted, 
we  cannot  but  feel  deeply  interested  in  obtaining 
some  acquaintance  with  the  organization  which  is 
the  seat  of  that  affection,  and  with  the  conditions 
most  conducive  to  the  due  performance  of  its  func- 
tions and  the  preservation  of  its  health. 

The  exposure  of  the  blood  to  the  action  of  the 
air  seems  to  be  indispensable  to  every  variety  of 
animated  creatures.  In  man  and  the  more  perfect 
of  the  lower  animals  it  is  carried  on  in  the  lungs,  the 
structure  of  which  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  many  animals,  however,  the  requisite  ac- 
tion is  effected  without  the  intervention  of  lungs. 
In  fishes,  for  example,  which  live  in  a  dense  medium, 
and  do  not  breathe,  the  blood  circulates  through  the 
gills,  which,  being  constantly  and  directly  in  con- 
tact with  the  water,  are  therefore  more  accessible 


168        STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LUNGS. 

to  the  action  of  the  air  which  the  water  contains, 
and  much  better  adapted  than  lungs  would  be  to 
the  medium  in  which  fishes  live.  In  worms,  on 
the  other  hand,  and  many  similar  animals,  no  dis- 
tinct organ  is  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  but  the 
aeration  of  the  blood  takes  place  at  the  surface  of 
the  body  by  means  of  pores  in  the  skin  called  spira* 
cula,  specially  adapted  to  this  end,  and  which  cannot 
be  shut  up  or  obstructed  any  more  than  the  real 
lungs  or  gills  without  inducing  death.  So  neces- 
sary, indeed,  is  atmospheric  air  to  the  vitality  of  the 
blood  in  all  classes  of  animals,  that  its  abstraction 
inevitably  induces  death ;  and  a  fish  can  no  more 
live  in  water  deprived  of  air  than  a  man  could  do  in 
an  atmosphere  devoid  of  oxygen.  And  thus  the 
fish  requires  a  renewal  of  air,  and  perishes  when  it 
is  denied,  exactly  as  man  does  in  similar  circum- 
stances. 

In  man,  the  lungs  are  those  large,  light,  spongy 
bodies  which,  along  with  the  heart,  completely  fill 
the  two  lateral  cavities  of  the  chest.  They  vary 
much  in  size  in  different  persons,  and,  as  the  chest 
is  formed  for  their  protection,  we  find  it  either  large 
and  capacious,  or  the  reverse,  according  to  the  size 
which  the  lungs  have  attained.  Their  position  re- 
latively to  the  other  viscera  may  be  understood  on 
reference  to  the  subjoined  woodcut,  which  repre- 
sents the  various  organs  of  the  chest  and  belly  as 
they  appear  on  removing  the  integuments,  breast- 
bone, and  part  of  the  ribs.  The  sketch  is  rather 
rude,  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose.  The  letters  R  L 
and  L  L  mark  the  right  and  left  lungs,  with  H  the 
heart  lying  between  them,  but  chiefly  on  the  left 
side.  V  is  an  inaccurate  representation  of  the 
large  blood-vessels  going  to  the  head,  neck,  and 
superior  extremities.  Livr  is  the  liver,  lying  in 
the  abdomen  or  belly,  and  separated  from  the 
chest  by  the  arched  fleshy  partition  D  D,  called 
the  diaphragm  or  midriff.  The  stomach  appears  on 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LUNGS. 


169 


the  other  side,  marked  Stw,  but  both  it  and  the  liver 
are  removed  a  little  from  their  natural  situation.  G 
is  the  gall-bladder.  Ill  are  the  various  parts  of  the 
intestinal  canal  through  which  the  foqd  is  passed  on 
its  way  from  the  stomach,  by  what  is  called  the  pe- 
ristaltic or  vermicular  motion  of  the  bowel,  one  circle 
of  fibres  narrowing  after  another,  so  as  to  propel  its 
contents  slowly  but  steadily,  and  resembling  in  some 
degree  the  contraction  of  a  common  wornu 


170       STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LUNGS, 

The  substance  of  the  lungs  consists  of  bronchial 
tubes,  air-cells,  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  cellular 
membrane,  or  parenchyma.  The  first  are  merely 
continuations  and  subdivisions  of  the  windpipe,  and 
serve  to  convey  the  external  air  to  the  air-cells 
of  the  lungs.  The  air-cells  constitute  the  chief  part 
of  the  pulmonary  tissue,  and  are  in  one  sense  the 
terminations  of  the  smaller  branches  of  the  bron- 
chial tubes.  When  fully  distended,  they  are  so  nu- 
merous as  in  appearance  to  constitute  almost  the 
whole  lung.  They  are  of  various  sizes,  from  the 
20th  to  the  100th  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are 
lined  with  an  exceedingly  fine  thin  membrane,  on 
which  the  minute  capillary  branches  of  the  pulmo- 
nary arteries  and  veins  are  copiously  ramified  ;  and 
it  is  while  circulating  in  the  small  vessels  of  this 
membrane,  and  there  exposed  to  the  air,  that  the 
blood  undergoes  the  change  from  the  venous  to  the 
arterial  state.  So  prodigiously  numerous  are  these 
air-cells  that  the  aggregate  extent  of  their  lining 
membrane  in  man  has  been  computed  to  exceed  a 
surface  of  20,000  square  inches. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  interposition  of  such 
a  membrane  must  have  the  effect  of  preventing  any 
action  of  the  air  upon  the  blood.  But,  in  addition 
to  the  proof  to  the  contrary  drawn  from  observa- 
tion, it  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that 
even  the  thick  and  firm  texture  of  bladder  is  insuf- 
ficient to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  the  change; 
venous  blood  confined  in  a  bladder  speedily  becorn 
ing  of  a  florid  red,  like  arterial  blood. 

Blood-vessels  necessarily  form  a  large  constituent 
portion  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs.  Besides  the 
arteries  and  veins  which  the  lungs  possess  in  com- 
mon with  other  parts  for  the  purposes  of  nutrition, 
they  have,  as  we  have  seen,  the  large  pulmonary 
arteries  and  veins,  dividing  everywhere  through 
their  substance  into  innumerable  branches,  convey- 
ing the  whole  blood  of  the  body  to  and  from  the  air- 


PREDISPOSITION  TO  PULMONARY  DISEASE.     171 

cells,  and  therefore  of  a  magnitude  proportioned  to 
the  quantity  of  blood  which  is  destined  to  pass 
through  them. 

These  two  tissues,  air-tubes  and  blood-vessels, 
together  with  the  loose  cellular  texture  or  net- 
work which  binds  them  together,  called  paren- 
chyma, form  the  whole  of  the  structure  peculiar  to 
the  lungs.  But,  like  all  other  living  parts,  they  are 
provided  also  with  nerves,  without  the  active  co- 
operation of  which,  in  supplying  the  requisite  ner 
vous  stimulus,  the  special  functions  of  the  lungs,  and 
consequently  life  itself,  would  speedily  cease. 

Every  one  must  have  remarked  the  copious  exha- 
lation of  moisture  which  takes  place  in  breathing, 
and  which  presents  a  striking  analogy  to  the  exha- 
lation from  the  surface  of  the  skin.  In  the  former 
as  in  the  latter  instance,  the  exhalation  is  carried  on 
by  the  innumerable  minute  capillary  vessels,  in 
which  the  small  arterial  branches  terminate  in  the 
air-cells.  This  can  be  made  evident  after  death,  by 
injecting  any  of  the  arterial  branches  with  water, 
turpentine,  or  quicksilver,  when  the  injection  will  be 
seen  to  exude  in  minute  points,  on  the  surface  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  air-cells.  The  pulmo- 
nary exhalation,  however,  must  not  thence  be  sup- 
posed to  be  a  mere  physical  or  mechanical  exuda- 
tion. It  is  the  result  of  a  vital  process,  and  is  sub- 
ject to  the  ordinary  laws  of  vital  action. 

Absorption^  in  like  manner,  takes  place  from  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  lungs,  as  we  have  seen  it  do 
n  the  skin.  When  a  person  breathes  an  atmo- 
sphereloaded  with  fumes  of  spirits,  of  tobacco,  of 
turpentine,  or  of  any  other  volatile  substance,  a 
portion  of  the  fumes  is  taken  up  by  the  absorbing 
vessels  of  the  lungs,  and  carried  into  the  system, 
and  there  produces  precisely  the  same  effects  as  if 
introduced  into  the  stomach.  It  has  occasionally 
happened  that  a  person  has  unwarily  become  intox- 
icated in  this  way;  and  the  lungs  thus  become  a 


172  CONDITIONS    REQUIRED    FOR 

ready  inlet  to  contagion,  miasmata,  and  other 
poisonous  influences  diffused  through  the  air  which 
we  breathe. 

From  this  general  explanation  of  the  structure  and 
uses  of  the  lungs,  it  will  be  obvious,  that  several 
conditions,  which  it  is  our  interest  specially  to  know 
and  observe,  are  essential  to  the  healthy  perform- 
ance of  the  important  function  of  respiration.  FIRST 
among  these  we  may  rank  a  healthy  original  form- 
ation of  the  lungs.  No  fact  in  medicine  is  better 
established  than  that  which  proves  the  hereditary 
transmission  from  parents  to  children  of  a  constitu- 
tional liability  to  pulmonary  disease,  and  especially 
to  consumption ;  yet  no  condition  is  less  attended 
to  in  forming  matrimonial  engagements.  The 
children  of  scrofulous  and  consumptive  parents  are 
generally  precocious,  and  their  minds  being  early 
matured,  they  engage  early  in  the  business  of  life, 
and  often  enter  upon  the  married  state  before  their 
bodily  frame  has  had  time  to  consolidate.  For  a 
few  years  every  thing  seems  to  go  on  prosperously, 
and  a  numerous  family  gathers  around  them.  All 
at  once,  however,  while  still  very  young,  their  phys- 
ical powers  begin  to  give  way,  and  they  drop  pre- 
maturely into  the  grave,  exhausted  by  consumption, 
and  leaving  children  behind  them,  destined  in  all 
probability  either  to  be  cut  off  as  they  approach 
maturity,  or  to  run  through  the  same  delusive  but 
fatal  career  as  that  of  the  parents  from  whom  they 
derived  their  existence. 

Many  examples  of  this  kind  might  be  pointed  out 
among  the  higher  classes  of  society,  who  are  not 
restrained  from  following  their  predominant  incli- 
nations, by  any  necessity  of  seeking  subsistence  in 
professional  pursuits.  And  many  instances  might 
be  referred  to,  in  which  no  regard  was  shown  to  the 
manifest  existence  of  the  same  disposition  in  the 
family  of  either  parent,  and  in  which,  consequently, 
the  marriage  state  was  imbittered  either  by  barren- 


EFFICIENT   RESPIRATION.  173 

ness,  which  is  then,  the  most  favourable  result,  at 
by  the  prevalence  of  disease  and  delicacy  in  the 
progeny.  It  may  not  be  easy  to  enforce  upon  the 
young  and  inexperienced  the  requisite  degree  of 
attention  to  these  circumstances ;  but  surely  educa- 
tion, especially  when  backed  by  example,  might  do 
much,  if  the  young  were  properly  instructed,  at  an 
early  period,  in  the  leading  facts  and  principles  of  the 
human  constitution.  Where  there  are  hereditary 
precocity  and  delicacy  of  frame,  marriage,  instead 
of  being  hastened,  ought  invariably  to  be  delayed  at 
least  till  the  fullest  maturity  and  consolidation  of  the 
system  :  otherwise  the  consequences  will  be  equally 
unhappy  for  the  individual  and  for  his  future  progeny. 
During  growth,  and  for  a  considerable  time  after 
growth  has  ceased,  the  constitution  is  still  imper- 
fect, even  in  healthy  subjects,  and  wants  the  en- 
during strength  which  it  afterward  acquires  in 
mature  age,  and  the  possession  of  which  marks  the 
period  which  nature  has  fixed  for  the  exercise  of 
the  functions  of  reproduction.  Many  young  people 
of  both  sexes  fall  sacrifices  to  early  marriages,  who 
might  have  withstood  the  ordinary  risks  of  life,  and 
lived  together  in  happiness,  if  they  had  delayed  their 
union  for  a  few  years,  and  allowed  time  for  the 
consolidation  of  their  constitutions. 

I  have  urged  this  point  strongly,  because  heredi- 
tary predisposition  is,  avowedly  and  beyond  all  doubt, 
the  most  frequent  source  of  the  more  serious  forms  of 
pulmonary  disease,  and  it  would  be  worse  than  folly  to  ; 
allow  past  and  painful  experience  to  go  for  nothing. 
Medical  men  have  much  in  their  power  in  prevent- 
ing such  violations  of  the  laws  of  the  Creator,  at 
least  where  they  are  regarded,  as  they  always  ought 
to  be,  as  the  friends  as  well  as  the  professional 
advisers  of  the  family. 

The  SECOND  requisite  to  the  well-being  of  the  lungs, 
and  to  the  free  and  salutary  exercise  of  respiration, 
is  a  due  supply  of  rich  and  healthy  blood.     When, 
P2 


174  CONDITIONS    REQUIRED   FOR 

from  defective  food,  or  impaired  digestion,  the  blood 
is  impoverished  in  quality  and  rendered  unfit  for 
adequate  nutrition,  the  lungs  speedily  suffer,  and 
that  often  to  a  fatal  extent.  So  certain  is  this  fact, 
that,  in  the  lower  animals,  tubercles  (the  cause  of 
incurable  consumption)  can  be  produced  in  the  lungs 
to  almost  any  extent^  by  withholding  a  sufficiency  of 
nourishing  food.  The  same  -circumstances  operate 
to  a  lamentable  extent  among  the  poorly  fed  popu- 
lation of  our  manufacturing  towns ;  whereas  it  is  pro- 
verbial that  butchers, — a  class  of  men  who  eat 
animal  food  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  and  live  much  in 
the  open  air,  are  almost  exempt  from  pulmonary 
consumption.  Among  the  higher  classes,  again,  the 
blood  is  impoverished,  and  the  lungs  are  injured,  not 
from  want  of  food,  but  from  want  of  the  power  of  ade- 
quately digesting  it ;  and  hence  we  find  in  every 
treatise  on  consumption,  a  section  devoted  espe- 
cially to  "  dyspeptic  phthisis,"  as  it  is  called,  or  sim- 
ply "  consumption  from  bad  digestion."  The  late 
hours,  heavy  meals,  and  deficient  exercise  which 
are  so  generally  complained  of,  but  still  so  regularly 
adhered  to  in  society,  are  the  chief  sources  of  the 
evils  to  which  we  are  now  alluding. 

THIRDLY. — The  free  and  easy  expansion  of  the 
chest  is  obviously  indispensable  to  the  full  play  and 
dilatation  of  the  lungs :  whatever  impedes  it,  either 
in  dress  or  in  position,  is  prejudicial  to  health ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  whatever  favours  the  free  ex- 
pansion of  the  chest  equally  promotes  the  healthy 
fulfilment  of  the  respiratory  functions.  Stays,  cor- 
sets, and  tight  waist-bands  operate  most  injuriously, 
by  compressing  the  thoracic  cavity  and  impeding 
the  due  dilatation  of  the  lungs ;  and,  in  many  in- 
stances, they  give  rise  to  consumption.  I  have  seen 
one  case,  in  which  the  liver  was  actually  indented 
by  the  excessive  pressure,  and  long  continued  bad 
health  and  ultimately  death  were  the  results.  In 
allusion  to  this  subject,  Mr.  Thackrah  mentions, 


EFFICIENT    RESPIRATION.  175 

that  men  can  exhale,  at  one  effort,  from  six  to  ten 
pints  of  air,  whereas  in  women  the  average  is  only 
from  two  to  four  pints.  In  ten  females,  free  from 
disease,  whom  he  examined,  about  the  age  of  18£, 
the  quantity  of  air  thrown  out  averaged  3i  pints; 
while,  in  young  men  of  the  same  age,  he  found  it 
amount  to  six  pints.  Some  allowance  is  to  be  made 
for  natural  differences  in  the  two  sexes,  but  enough 
remains  to  show  a  great  diminution  of  capacity, 
which  can  be  ascribed  to  no  other  cause  than  the 
use  of  stays.  But  having  discussed  this  matter 
when  treating  of  the  muscular  system,  it  is  unne- 
cessary to  enlarge  on  it  again,  further  than  to 
remark,  that  the  constrained  motionless  attitudes 
enforced  upon  young  females  in  the  course  of  educa- 
tion are  very  unfavourable  to  the  play  of  the  lungs 
and  to  the  full  development  of  the  chest. 

The  admirable  harmony  established  by  the  Crea- 
tor between  the  various  constituent  parts  of  the 
animal  frame,  renders  it  impossible  to  pay  regard  to 
or  infringe  the  conditions  required  for  the  health  of 
any  one,  without  all  the  rest  participating  in  the 
benefit  or  injury.  Thus,  while  cheerful  exercise  in 
the  open  air  and  in  the  society  of  equals  is  directly 
and  eminently  conducive  to  the  well-being  of  the 
muscular  system,  the  advantage  does  not  stop  there ; 
the  beneficent  Creator  having  kindly  so  ordered  it, 
that  the  same  exercise  shall  be  scarcely  less  advan- 
tageous to  the  proper  performance  of  the  important 
function  of  respiration.  Active  exercise  calls  the 
lungs  into  play,  favours  their  expansion,  promotes 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  their  substance, 
and  leads  to  their  complete  and  healthy  develop- 
ment. The  same  end  is  greatly  facilitated  by  that 
free  and  vigorous  exercise  of  the  voice  which  so 
uniformly  accompanies  and  enlivens  the  sports  of 
the  young,  and  which  doubles  the  benefits  derived 
from  them  considered  as  exercise.  The  excitement 
of  the  social  and  moral  feelings  among  children 


176  CONDITIONS    REQUIRED    FOR 

engaged  in  play  is  another  powerful  tonic,  the  influ- 
ence of  which  on  the  general  health  ought  not  to  be 
overlooked;  for  the  nervous  influence  is  as  indis- 
pensable to  the  right  performance  of  respiration,  as 
it  is  to  the  action  of  the  muscles  or  to  the  digestion 
of  food. 

This  latter  principle  explains  the  reason  why  the 
depressing  passions  predispose  to  pulmonary  con 
sumption,  a  fact  which  has  been  remarked  from  a 
very  early  period.  When  the  mind  is  in  a  state  of 
depression,  the  whole  nervous  functions  become 
enfeebled;  and  the  stimulus  to  the  other  organs,  on 
which  so  much  of  their  vital  power  depends,  is  im- 
paired, and  a  general  want  of  tone  pervades  the 
system,  rendering  the  principal  organs  of  the  body, 
and  the  lungs  among  the  rest,  unusually  susceptible 
of  disease.  Here,  again,  we  may  perceive  the  beau- 
tiful adaptation  of  all  the  functions  to  each  other, 
and  the  exquisite  harmony  of  design  which  has  pre- 
sided over  the'original  construction  of  the  "body. 

It  is  curious  indeed  to  trace  the  relations  in  which 
the  animal  functions  stand  to  each  other.  Grief, 
sorrow,  fear,  and  other  depressing  passions  of  the 
mind,  diminish  the  activity  of  the  circulation,  im- 
pair respiration,  lower  vitality,  and  consequently 
render  the  organization  more  than  usually  suscep- 
tible of  diseases  arising  from  diminished  action. 
Anger,  joy,  and  the  other  exhilarating  passions,  on 
the  other  hand,  stimulate  the  circulation,  quicken 
respiration,  increase  the  vital  powers,  and  create  a 
proneness  to  inflammatory  or  excited  action.  At 
first  sight,  it  may  seem  strange  that  such  should  be 
the  results  of  different  kinds  of  mental  emotion.  On 
examination,  however,  we  perceive  evident  design, 
in  the  arrangement.  The  tendency  of  grief,  despond- 
ency, and  sorrow  is  to  produce  meditative  inaction. 
These  emotions  require  no  exertion  of  the  bodily 
powers,  and  no  unusual  expenditure  of  vital  energy  : 
but  rather  the  reverse.  This,  it  will  be  observed, 


EFFICIENT    RESPIRATION.  177 

Is  a  condition  incompatible  with  a  quick  supply  of 
blood,  or  a  high  degree  of  respiration ;  for  if  these 
were  conjoined,  they  would  only  give  rise  to  an 
amount  of  bodily  activity  at  variance  with  the  ab- 
sorbed and  inactive  state  of  the  mind.  The  nature 
of  the  exciting  passions,  again,  is  to  impel  us  vigor- 
ously to  action ;  but  action  cannot  be  sustained  with- 
out a  full  supply  of  highly  oxygenated  blood,  and  hence 
a  very  manifest  reason  for  the  quick  respiration  and 
accelerated  circulation  which  attend  mental  excite- 
ment. Great  depression  of  mind  thus  leads  naturally 
to  imperfect  respiration,  a  more  sluggish  flow  of 
blood,  and  the  various  diseases  of  diminished  vi- 
tality ;  while  great  excitement  induces  full  respira- 
tion, quickened  circulation,  and  the  various  diseases 
of  exalted  vitality.  These  principles  show  the  para- 
mount importance,  in  the  treatment  of  disease,  of 
carefully  regulating  the  mental  state  of  the  patient, 
according  to  the  object  we  have  in  view. 

A  fourth  essential  condition  of  healthy  respira- 
tion remains  to  be  noticed,  viz.  a  regular  supply  of 
vure  fresh  air,  without  which  the  requisite  changes 
in  the  constitution  of  the  blood,  as  it  passes  through 
the  lungs,  cannot  be  effected.  To  enable  the  reader 
to  appreciate  this  condition,  we  must  premise  some 
remarks  on  the  nature  of  the  changes  alluded  to. 

Atmospheric  air  consists  of  nearly  79  per  cent. 
of  nitrogen  or  azotic  gas,  21  per  cent,  of  oxygen, 
and  not  quite  1  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  or  fixed 
air :  and  such  is  its  constitution  when  taken  into 
the  lungs  in  the  act  of  breathing.  When  it  is  ex- 
pelled from  them,  however,  its  composition  is  found 
to  be  greatly  altered.  The  quantity  of  nitrogen  re- 
mains nearly  the  same,  but  8  or  8£  per  cent,  of  the 
oxygen  or  vital  air  has  disappeared,  and  been  re- 
placed by  an  equal  amount  of  carbonic  acid.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  changes,  the  expired  air  is  loaded  with 
moisture.  Simultaneously  with  these  occurrences, 
the  blood  collected  from  the  veins,  which  entere4 


178  CONDITIONS   REQUIRED    FOR 

the  lungs  of  a  dark  colour  and  unfit  for  the  support 
of  life,  assumes  a  florid  red  hue,  and  acquires  the 
power  of  supporting  life. 

It  is  not  easy  to  offer  a  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  processes  by  which  these  changes  are  ef- 
fected in  the  lungs.  According  to  one  view,  the 
carbonic  acid  contained  in  expired  air  is  formed  by 
the  secretion  of  carbon  from  the  venous  blood  in  its 
passage  through  the  lungs,  which  immediately  unites 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  forms  carbonic  acid, 
in  which  shape  it  is  then  thrown  out  in  expiration. 
According  to  the  other  view,  the  carbonic  acid  exists 
in,  and  is  separated  from,  the  venous  blood  in  the 
state  of  acid,  and  the  oxygen  which  disappears  is 
absorbed  into  the  circulating  current.  The  former 
explanation  was  long  received,  but  Dr.  Edwards  has 
lately  advanced  very  strong  grounds  for  adopting 
the  latter.  Whatever  may  be  the  true  theory,  all 
physiologists  are  agreed  as  to  the  fact  that  the  arte- 
rialization  of  the  blood  in  the  lungs  is  essentially 
dependent  on  the  supply  of  oxygen  contained  in  the 
air  which  we  breathe,  and  that  air  is  fit  or  unfit  for 
respiration  in  exact  proportion  as  its  quantity  of 
oxygen  approaches  to,  or  differs  from,  that  con- 
tained in  pure  air.  If,  consequently,  we  attempt  to 
breathe  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  or  any  other  gas  not 
containing  oxygen,  the  result  will  be  speedy  suffo- 
cation ;  whereas,  if  we  breathe  air  containing  a  too 
high  proportion  of  oxygen,  the  vital  powers  will 
speedily  suffer  from  excess  of  stimulus.  From  oxy- 
gen being  thus  essential  to  life  and  respiration,  it  is 
often  called  vital  air,  in  contradistinction  to  those 
gases  which  are  incapable  of  supporting  life. 

We  can  now  appreciate  the  importance  of  a  due 
supply  of  fresh  air  wherever  living  beings  are  con- 
gregated. In  man,  the  rate  of  vitiation  produced  by 
breathing,  and  the  relative  importance  of  ventila- 
tion, may  be  easily  estimated.  An  individual  is 
Ascertained  to  breathe,  on  an  average,  from  14  to  20 


—  EFFICIENT    RESPIRATION.  179 

times  in  a  minute,  and  to  inhale  from  15  to  40  cubic 
inches  of  air  at  each  inspiration.  Sir  H.  Davy  and 
others  rate  the  quantity  so  low  as  from  13  to  17 
inches ;  but  most  observers  agree  with  Dr.  Menzies, 
who  experimented  with  great  care,  in  estimating  it  at 
40  inches.  The  quantity,  however,  varies  much  in 
different  individuals. 

Even  taking  the  consumpt  of  air  at  20  inches,  as 
a  very  low  medium,  and  rating  the  number  of  inspi- 
rations at  15,  it  appears  that,  in  the  space  of  one 
minute,  no  less  than  300  cubic  inches  of  air  are  re- 
quired for  the  respiration  of  a  single  person.  In 
the  same  space  of  time,  24  cubic  inches  of  oxygen 
disappear,  and  are  replaced  by  an  equal  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  ;  so  that  in  the  course  of  an  hour  one 
pair  of  lungs  will,  at  a  low  estimate,  vitiate  the  air 
by  the  subtraction  of  no  less  than  1440  cubic  inches 
of  oxygen,  and  the  addition  of  an  equal  number  of 
carbonic  acid,  thus  constituting  a  source  of  impurity 
which  cannot  be  safely  overlooked. 

The  fatal  effects  of  breathing  highly  vitiated  air 
may  easily  be  made  the  subject  of  experiment. 
When  a  mouse  is  confined  in  a  large  and  tight  glass 
jar  full  of  air,  it  seems  for  a  short  time  to  experience 
no  inconvenience  ;  but  in  proportion  as  the  consump- 
tion of  oxygen  and  the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid 
proceed,  it  begins  to  show  symptoms  of  uneasiness, 
and  to  pant  in  its  breathing,  as  if  struggling  for  air; 
and  in  a  few  hours  it  dies,  convulsed  exactly  as  if 
drowned  or  strangulated.  The  same  results  follow 
the  deprivation  or  vitiation  of  air  in  man  and  in  all 
animated  beings  ;  and  in  hanging,  death  results  not 
from  dislocation  of  the  neck,  as  is  often  supposed, 
but  simply  from  the  interruption  to  breathing  pre- 
venting the  necessary  changes  taking  place  in  the 
constitution  of  the  blood. 

The  horrible  fate  of  the  Englishmen  who  were 
shut  up  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  in  1756 
is  strikingly  illustrative  of  the  destructive  conse- 


80      EFFECTS    OF   DEFICIENT    VENTILATION. 

quences  of  an  inadequate  supply  of  ah*.  146  in 
number  were  thrust  into  a  confined  place,  18  feet 
square.  There  were  only  two  very  small  windows 
by  which  air  could  be  admitted,  and  as  both  of  them 
were  on  the  same  side,  ventilation  was  utterly  im- 
possible. Scarcely  was  the  door  shut  upon  the 
prisoners  when  their  sufferings  commenced,  and  in 
a  short  time  a  delirious  and  mortal  struggle  ensued 
to  get  near  the  windows.  Within  four  hours,  those 
who  survived  lay  in  the  silence  of  apoplectic  stupor ; 
and  at  the  end  of  six  hours,  ninety-six  were  relieved 
by  death !  In  the  morning  when  the  door  was  opened, 
23  only  were  found  alive,  many  of  whom  were  sub- 
sequently cut  off  by  putrid  fever,  caused  by  the  dread- 
ful effluvia  and  corruption  of  the  air. 

This  tremendous  example  ought  not  to  be  lost 
upon  us.  If  the  results  arising  from  the  vitiation 
of  the  air  to  an  extreme  degree  be  so  appalling,  we 
may  rest  assured  that  those  arising  from  every 
lesser  degree,  although  they  may  be  less  obvious, 
are  not  less  certain  in  their  operation.  It  is,  indeed, 
readily  admitted  in  the  abstract,  that  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  pure  air  is  indispensable  to  the  healthy  per- 
formance of  respiration ;  but  if  we  inquire  how  far 
this  condition  is  attended  to  by  mankind  at  large,  we 
shall  have  no  reason  to  think  the  present  warning 
unnecessary.  I  have  already  noticed  (at  p.  19)  the 
case  of  Captain  Ganson  who  was  suffocated  in  the 
cabin  of  the  Magnus  Troil  in  Leith  Harbour  on  1st 
March,  1833,  and  whose  brother  was  recovered  with 
great  difficulty  from  a  state  of  stupor,  induced  ap- 
parently by  an  insufficient  supply  of  respirable  air. 
To  these  instances  another  may  be  added  from  the 
Globe  newspaper  of  1st  April,  in  which  it  is  men- 
tioned, that  the  captain  and  mate  of  the  French 
Chasse  maree  Royaliste  lost  their  lives  from  suffo- 
cation in  the  harbour  of  Jersey,  in  a  precisely  simi- 
lar way.  In  both  vessels  the  cabin  was  very  small, 
and  the  door  having  been  carefully  shut,  the  access 
of  fresh  ail  was  completely  prevented* 


SFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION.       181 

I  do  not  mean  to  say,  that  in  these  cases  the  fatal 
results  were  attributable  exclusively  to  vitiation  of 
the  air  by  breathing.  Fixed  air  may  have  been  dis- 
engaged also  from  some  other  source ;  but  the  de- 
teriorating influence  of  respiration,  where  no  venti- 
lation is  perceptible,  cannot  be  doubted.  According 
to  Dr.  Bostock's  estimate,  for  example,  an  average 
sized  man  consumes  about  45,000  cubic  inches  of 
oxygen,  and  gives  out  about  40,000  of  carbonic  acid 
in  24  hours,  or  18,750  of  oxygen  and  16,666  of  car- 
bonic acid  in  ten  hours,  which  was  nearly  the  time 
which  the  sufferers  had  remained  in  the  cabin  before 
they  were  found.  As  they  were  two  in  number,  the 
quantity  of  oxygen  which  would  have  been  required 
for  their  consumption  was  of  course  equal  to  37,500 
cubic  inches,  while  the  carbonic  acid  given  out 
would  amount  to  upwards  of  32,000  inches — a  source 
of  impurity  manifestly  quite  equal  to  the  production 
of  serious  consequences  to  those  exposed  to  it ;  and 
which  no  one,  properly  acquainted  with  the  consti- 
tution of  his  own  body  and  with  the  conditions 
essential  to  healthy  respiration,  would  ever  have 
willingly  encountered.  It  is  no  argument  to  say 
that  the  cause  of  death  must  have  been  some  dis- 
engagement of  gas  within  the  vessel:  for,  even 
granting  this  to  have  been  the  case,  it  is  still  certain 
that,  had  the  means  of  ventilation  been  adequately 
provided,  this  gas  would  have  been  so  much  diluted, 
and  so  quickly  dispersed,  that  it  would  have  been 
comparatively  innoxious. 

In  the  construction  of  our  houses,  the  laws  of 
respiration  are  often  glaringly  infringed,  especially 
in  towns.  The  public  rooms,  which  can  be  easily 
ventilated  at  any  time, — which  are  in  fact  ventilated 
by  the  constant  opening  and  shutting  of  the  door, 
and  by  the  draught  of  the  chimney, — and  in  which, 
therefore,  large  dimensions  are  less  necessary  for 
salubrity,  are  always  the  most  spacious  and  airy. 
The  bed-rooms,  on  the  other  hand,  in  which,  from 
Q 


182      EFFECTS    OF   DEFI£IEK7     rENTlLATIOff. 

the  doors  being  shut,  and  from  there  being  no  current 
of  air  in  the  whole  seven  or  eight  hours  during  which 
they  are  occupied,  the  vitiation  of  the  air  is  the 
greatest,  and  in  which,  consequently,  size  is  most 
required,  are  uniformly  the  smallest  and  most  con- 
fined ;  and,  as  if  this  source  of  impurity  were  not 
sufficient,  we  still  farther  reduce  the  already  too 
limited  space,  by  surrounding  the  bed  closely  with 
curtains,  for  the  express  purpose  of  preventing  ven- 
tilation, and  keeping  us  enveloped  in  the  same 
heated  atmosphere.  Can  any  thing  be  imagined 
more  directly  at  variance  than  this  with  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  respiration  ?  Or  could  such  prac- 
tices ever  have  been  resorted  to,  had  the  nature  of 
the  human  constitution  been  regarded  before  they 
were  adopted  1  In  this  respect  we  are  more  humane 
towards  the  lower  animals  than  towards  our  own 
species ;  for,  notwithstanding  all  the  refinements  of 
civilization,  we  have  not  yet  aggravated  the  want 
of  ventilation  in  the  stable  or  the  cow-house,  by 
adding  curtains  to  the  individual  stalls  of  the  in- 
mates. 

So  little,  however,  are  we  taught  to  think  of  the 
nature  and  wants  of  the  human  constitution,  that  in 
Edinburgh  we  have  instances  of  large  public  rooms, 
capable  of  holding  from  800  to  1000  persons,  built 
within  these  few  years,  without  any  means  of  ade- 
quate ventilation  being  provided.  This  could  not 
have  happened,  had  either  the  architects  or  their 
employers  known  any  thing  of  the  laws  of  the  hu- 
man constitution.  When  these  rooms  are  crowded, 
and  the  meeting  lasts  for  some  hours,  especially  if 
it  be  in  winter,  the  consequences  are  sufficiently 
marked.  Either  such  a  multitude  must  be  subjected 
to  all  the  evils  of  a  contaminated  and  unwholesome 
atmosphere,  or  they  must  be  partially  relieved  by 
opening  the  windows,  and  allowing  a  continued 
stream  of  cold  air  to  pour  down  upon  the  heated 
bodies  of  those  who  are  near  them,  till  the  latter  are 


EFFECTS    OF   DEFICIENT    VENTILATION.        1.83 

thoroughly  chilled,  and  perhaps  fatal  illness  is  in- 
duced ;  and,  unfortunately,  even  at  such  a  price,  the 
relief  is  only  partial ;  for  the  windows  being  all  on 
one  side  of  the  room,  and  not  extending  much  above 
half-way  to  the  ceiling,  complete  ventilation  is  im- 
practicable. 

In  dwelling-houses  lighted  by  gas,  the  frequent 
renewal  of  the  air  acquires  increased  importance 
A  single  gas-burner  will  consume  more  oxygen,  an 
produce  more  carbonic  acid  to  deteriorate  the  atmo- 
sphere of  a  room,  than  six  or  eight  candles.  *  If, 
therefore,  where  several  burners  are  used,  no  pro- 
vision be  made  for  the  escape  of  the  corrupted  air, 
and  for  the  introduction  of  pure  air  from  without, 
the  health  will  necessarily  suffer.  A  ventilator 
placed  over  the  burners,  like  an  inverted  funnel,  and 
opening  into  the  chimney,  is  an  efficient  and  easy 
remedy  for  the  former  evil ;  and  a  small  tube  form- 
ing a  communication  between  the  external  air  and 
the  room  would  supply  fresh  air,  where  necessary. 
The  tube  might  be  made  to  pass,  like  a  distiller's 
worm,  through  a  vessel  containing  hot  water,  by 
which  means  the  air  might  be  heated,  in  very  cold 
weather,  before  being  thrown  into  the  room,  and 
thus  the  danger  arising  from  cold  draughts  and  in- 
equalities of  temperature  be  avoided. 

Many  of  our  churches  and  schools  are  extremely 
ill  ventilated ;  and  accordingly  it  is  observed,  that 
fainting  and  hysterics  occur  in  churches  much  more 
frequently  in  the  afternoon  than  in  the  forenoon,  be- 
*ause  the  air  is  then  in  its  maximum  of  vitiation. 
Indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  look  around  us  in  a 
crowded  church,  towards  the  close  of  the  service, 
without  perceiving  the  effects  of  deficient  air  in  the 
expression  of  the  features  of  every  one  present. 
Either  a  relaxed  sallow  paleness  of  the  surface,  or 
Hie  hectic  flush  of  fever,  is  observable  ;  and,  as  the 
pecesearv  accompaniment,  a  sensation  of  mental 


184       EFFECTS    OF   DEFICIENT    VENTILATION. 

and  bodily  lassitude  is  felt,  which  is  immediately 
relieved  by  getting  into  the  open  air. 

I  have  seen  churches  frequented  by  upwards  of  a 
thousand  people,  in  which,  in  winter,  not  only  no 
means  of  ventilation  are  employed  during  service, 
but  even  during  the  interval  between  the  forenoon 
and  afternoon  services,  the  windows  are  kept  as 
carefully  closed  as  if  deadly  contagion  lay  outside, 
watching  for  an  opportunity  to  enter  by  the  first  open 
chink,  and  where,  consequently,  the  congregation 
must  inhale,  for  two  or  three  hours  in  the  afternoon, 
an  exceedingly  corrupted  air,  and  suffer  the  penalty 
in  headaches,  colds,  bilious  and  nervous  attacks. 

Few  of  our  schools  are  well  regulated  in  this  re- 
spect. It  is  now  several  years  since,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  a  visit  to  one  of  the  classes  of  a  great 
public  seminary,  my  attention  was  first  strongly 
attracted  to  the  injury  resulting  to  the  mental  and 
bodily  functions  from  the  inhalation  of  impure  air. 
About  150  boys  were  assembled  in  one  large  room, 
where  they  had  been  already  confined  nearly  an 
Iiour  and  a  half  when  I  entered.  The  windows 
were  partly  open;  but,  notwithstanding  this,  the 
change  from  the  fresh  atmosphere  outside  to  the 
close  contaminated  air  within  was  obvious  to  every 
sense,  and  most  certainly  was  not  without  its  effect 
on  the  mind  itself,  accompanied  as  it  was  with  a 
sensation  of  fulness  in  the  forehead,  and  slight  head- 
ache. The  boys,  with  every  motive  to  activity  that 
an  excellent  system  and  an  enthusiastic  teacher 
could  bestow,  presented  an  aspect  of  weariness  and 
fatigue  which  the  mental  stimulus  they  were  under 
could  not  overcome,  and  which  recalled  forcibly 
sensations  long  bygone,  which  I  had  experienced  to 
a  woful  extent,  when  seated  on  the  benches  of  the 
same  school. 

These  observations  stirred  up  a  train  of  reflec- 
tions ;  and  when  I  called  to  mind  the  freshness  and 
alacrity  with  which,  when  at  school,  our  morning 


EFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION.       185 

operations  were  carried  on,  the  gradual  approach 
to  languor  and  yawning  which  took  place  as  the  day 
advanced,  and  the  almost  instant  resuscitation  of  the 
whole  energies  of  mind  and  body  that  ensued  on 
our  dismissal,  I  could  not  help  thinking  that,  even 
after  making  every  necessary  deduction  for  the  men- 
tal fatigue  of  the  lessons,  and  the  inaction  of  body, 
a  great  deal  of  the  comparative  listlessness  and  in- 
difference was  owing  to  the  continued  inhalation  of 
an  air  too  much  vitiated  to  be  able  to  afford  the 
requisite  stimulus  to  the  blodtt,  on  which  last  con- 
dition the  efficiency  of  the  brain  so  essentially  de- 
pends. This  became  the  more  probable,  on  recol- 
lecting the  pleasing  excitement  occasionally  expe- 
rienced for  a  few  moments,  from  the  rush  of  fresh 
air  which  took  place  when  the  door  was  opened  to 
admit  some  casual  visiter.  Indeed,  on  referring  to 
the  symptoms  induced  by  breathing  carbonic  acid 
gas  or  fixed  air,  it  is  impossible  not  to  perceive  that 
the  headache,  languor,  and  debility  consequent  on 
confinement  in  an  ill- ventilated  apartment,  or  in  air 
vitiated  by  many  people,  are  nothing  but  minor  de- 
grees of  the  same  process  of  poisoning  which  en- 
sues on  immersion  in  fixed  air.  Of  this  latter  state, 
"  great  heaviness  in  the  head,  tingling  in  the  ears, 
troubled  sight,  a  great  inclination  to  sleep,  diminution 
of  strength,  and  falling  down,"''  are  stated  by  Orfila  as 
the  chief  symptoms,*  and  every  one  knows  how 
closely  these  resemble  what  is  felt  in  crowded  halls. 
Another  instance  of  the  noxious  influence  of  viti- 
ated air,  which  made  a  very  strong  impression  on 
my  mind,  was  during  a  three  hours'  service  in  a 
crowded  country  church,  in  a  warm  Sunday  in  July, 
The  windows  were  all  shut,  and  in  consequence 
the  open  door  was  of  little  use  in  purifying  the  atn  'o- 
sphere,  which  was  unusually  contaminated,  not  ct  Jy 
by  the  respiration  of  so  many  people,  but  by  ;>.e 

*  Toxicologie,  il  422. 
Q2 


186        EFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION. 

very  abundant  perspiration  from  the  skin  excited 
by  the  heat  and  confinement.  Few  of  the  lower 
classes,  either  in  town  or  country,  extend  their 
cleanliness  beyond  the  washing  of  the  hands  and 
face.  Hence  the  cutaneous  exudation,  in  such 
persons,  is  characterized  by  a  strong  and  nau- 
seous smell,  which,  when  concentrated,  as  it  was  on 
this  occasion,  becomes  absolutely  overpowering. 
Accordingly,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  service,  there 
was  heard  one  general  buzz  of  complaint  of  head- 
ache, sickness,  and  oppression;  and  the  reality  of 
the  suffering  was  amply  testified  by  the  pale  and 
wearied  appearance  even  of  the  most  robust. 

One  of  the  evils  of  ignorance  is,  that  we  often 
sin  and  suffer  the  punishment,  without  being  aware 
that  we  are  sinning,  and  that  it  is  in  our  power  to 
escape  the  suffering  by  avoiding  the  sin.  For  many 
generations,  mankind  have  experienced  the  evil  re- 
sults of  deficient  ventilation,  especially  in  towns, 
and  suffered  the  penalty  of  delicate  health,  head- 
aches, fevers,  consumptions,  cutaneous  and  nervous 
diseases  ;  and  yet,  from  ignorance  of  the  true  nature 
and  importance  of  the  function  of  respiration,  and 
©f  the  great  consumption  of  air  in  its  performance, 
architects  have  gone  on  planning  and  constructing 
edifices  and  houses,  without  bestowing  a  thought  on 
the  means  of  supplying  them  with  fresh  air,  although 
animal  life  cannot  be  carried  on  without  it:  and 
while  ingenuity  and  science  have  been  taxed  to  the 
uttermost  to  secure  a  proper  supply  of  water,  the 
admission  of  pure  air,  though  far  more  essential, 
has  been  left  to  steal  in  like  a  thief  in  the  night, 
through  any  hole  it  can  find  open.  In  constructing 
hospitals,  indeed,  ventilation  has  been  thought  of, 
because  a  notion  is  prevalent  that  the  sick  require 
fresh  air,  and  cannot  recover  without  it ;  but  it 
seems  not  to  have  been  perceived,  that  what  is  in- 
dispensable for  the  recovery  of  the  sick  may  be  not 
less  advantageous  in  preserving  from  sickness  those 


EFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION.       187 

who  are  well.  Were  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  man  to  constitute  a  regular  part  of  a 
liberal  education,  such  inconsistencies  as  this  would 
soon  disappear,  and  the  scientific  architect  would 
speedily  devise  the  best  means  for  supplying  our 
houses  with  pure  air,  as  he  has  already  supplied  them 
with  pure  water. 

That  these  remarks  are  not  uncalled  for,  even  as 
fegards  hospitals,  may  be  conceived  from  the  sub- 
joined quotations  from  the  Lancet  of  29th  Decem- 
ber, 1832.  After  narrating  a  case  of  a  patient  who 
was  carried  off  by  pleurisy,  while  under  treatment 
by  Dr.  Elliotson,  in  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  for  dis- 
ease of  pylorus,  the  reporter  gives  his  opinion,  that 
the  pleurisy  "  was  most  likely  occasioned  by  the  ex- 
treme  draughts  of  this  ward.  There  is  a  great  cur- 
rent of  air  in  the  ward  ;  and  I  have  seen  many  per- 
sons in  it  suffer  very  much  indeed."  In  a  note,  it 
is  added,  "  The  number  of  patients  who  are  thus  carried 
off  yearly  forms  a  startling  list  to  be  laid  before  the 
eyes  of  the  governors  of  this  institution.  Such  results 
are  shamefully  frequent."  I  fear  there  are  many 
other  hospitals  as  much  in  need  of  improvement  in 
this  respect  as  that  of  St.  Thomas's. 

As  a  contrast  to  the  above  case,  it  is  gratifying 
to  observe  the  care  which  has  been  taken  to  effect 
a  thorough  and  safe  ventilation  in  fitting  up  the  new 
surgical  wards  of  the  Edinburgh  Infirmary,  which 
may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  what  ought  to  be  done, 
not  only  with  all  public  institutions,  but  I  may  add 
with  all  private  dwellings.  In  these  wards  fresh  air 
/s  introduced  by  large  circular  openings  in  the  floor, 
and  the  vitiated  air  escapes  by  similar  openings  in 
the  roof.  The  apparatus  is  so  constructed  as  to 
admit  of  the  air  being  heated  in  winter  before  it 
enters  the  ward,  by  which  means  all  danger  from 
cold  currents  is  prevented. 

That  the  evils  which  sound  physiology  would 
lead  us  to  anticipate  from  frequently  breathing  im- 


188       EFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION. 

pure  air  actually  occur,  is  not  a  matter  of  doubt. 
Among  other  writers,  Mr.  Thackrah,  in  his  excel- 
lent little  work  on  the  effects  of  trades  and  profes- 
sions on  health,  expresses  himself  strongly  to  this 
effect,  and  specially  notices  that  dyspeptic  symptoms 
are  often  the  first  indications  of  the  commencing 
disease,  and  that  the  lungs  suffer  only  after  the  di- 
gestive system  has  been  for  a  time  disordered.  It 
may  not  be  easy  to  explain  why  the  stomach  and 
bowels  should  suffer  even  sooner  than  the  lungs 
themselves,  from  a  cause  which  seems  exclusively  ' 
directed  to  the  latter  ;  but  observation  substantiates 
the  fact,  and  it  is  one  of  much  interest  in  enabling 
us  to  trace  to  their  true  sources  many  of  the  forms 
of  bad  health  prevalent  in  the  middle  ranks  of  life. 

Although,  however,  the  first  effects  are  so  often 
referable  to  the  stomach,  the  lungs  and  general 
system  sooner  or  later  become  implicated.  An  in- 
dividual possessing  a  strong  constitution  may  indeed 
withstand  the  bad  consequences  of  occasionally 
breathing  an  impure  atmosphere,  but  even  he  will 
suffer  for  the  time.  He  will  not  experience  the 
same  amount  of  mischief  from  it  as  the  invalid,  but 
will  be  perfectly  conscious  of  a  temporary  feeling 
of  discomfort,  the  very  purpose  of  which  is,  like 
pain  from  a  blow,  to  impel  him  to  shun  the  danger, 
and  seek  relief  in  a  purer  air.  The  comparative 
harmlessness  of  a  single  exposure  is  the  circum- 
stance which  blinds  us  to  the  magnitude  of  the  ul- 
timate result,  and  makes  us  fancy  ourselves  safe  and 
prudent,  when  every  day  is  surely  though  imper- 
ceptibly adding  to  the  sum  of  the  mischief.  But 
let  any  one  who  doubts  the  importance  of  this  con- 
dition of  health  watch  the  dyspeptic,  the  pulmonary, 
or  the  nervous  invalid  through  a  season  devoted  to 
attendance  on  crowded  parties  and  public  amuse- 
ments, and  he  will  find  the  frequency  of  headaches, 
colds,  and  other  fits  of  illness  increase  in  exact  pro- 
portion to  the  accumulated  exposure,  till,  at  the  end 


EFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION.       189 

of  spring",  a  general  debility  has  been  induced,  which 
imperatively  demands  a  cessation  of  festivity  and  a 
change  of  scene  and  air.  This  debility  is  often  ig- 
norantly  ascribed  to  the  unwholesome  influence  of 
spring, — a  season  extolled  by  the  poet,  not  as  a 
cause  of  relaxation  and  feebleness,  but  as  the  dis- 
penser of  renovated  life  and  vigour  to  all  created 
beings. 

It  is  in  vain  to  warn  such  persons  beforehand 
that  Nature  is  always  consistent,  and  that  if  bad  air 
be  really  unfit  for  healthy  respiration,  it  must  be 
detrimental  to  them,  and  to  all  who  breathe  it ;  and 
that  its  ill  effects  are  not  less  real  because  at  first 
gradual  and  unperceived  in  their  approach.  They 
know  too  little  of  the  animal  economy  and  of  na- 
ture's laws,  and  are  too  much  devoted  to  their  own 
object,  to  be  impressed  by  cautions  of  this  kind ;  and, 
in  looking-  forward  to  the  ball-room  or  crowded 
evening-party,  few  of  them  will  believe  that  any 
possible  connexion  can  exist  between  breathing-  its 
vitiated  atmosphere  and  the  headaches,  indigestion, 
and  cutaneous  eruptions  which  so  frequently  follow, 
and  to  be  delivered  from  which  they  would  sacrifice 
almost  every  other  enjoyment. 

If  it  be  said  that  nobody  will  be  troubled  with  all 
this  trifling  care,  and  that  thousands  who  expose 
themselves  in  every  way  nevertheless  enjoy  good 
health  and  a  long  life,  I  can  only  answer  that  it  is 
true  ;  but  that  an  infinitely  greater  proportion  pass 
through  life  as  habitual  invalids,  and  scarcely  know, 
from  experience,  what  a  day  of  good  health  really 
is.  The  late  discussions  on  the  Factory  Bill  have 
demonstrated,  by  an  unassailable  mass  of  evidence, 
that  many  circumstances,  rarely  considered  as  in- 
jurious, because  they  have  no  immediate  effect  in 
suddenly  destroying  life  by  acute  diseases,  have 
nevertheless  a  marked  influence  in  slowly  under- 
mining health  and  shortening  humaa  existence. 
There  are  trades,  for  example,  at  which  workmen 


190      EFFECTS    OF    DEFICIENT    VENTILATION. 

may  labour  for  fifteen  or  twenty  years  without  hav- 
ing been  a  month  confined  by  disease  during  all  that 
time,  and  which  are  therefore  said  to  be  healthy 
trades ;  and  yet,  when  the  investigation  is  pursued 
a  little  farther,  it  is  found  that  the  general  health 
is  so  steadily,  although  imperceptibly,  encroached 
upon,  that  scarcely  a  single  workman  survives  his 
fortieth  or  fiftieth  year. 

It  is  this  insidious  influence  of  impure  air  to 
which  I  am  anxious  to  direct  attention.  So  long  as 
delicacy  is  the  rule,  and  robust  health  the  exception, 
especially  among  females,  and  so  long  as  fifty  or 
sixty  thousand  persons  perish  annually  in  Great 
Britain  from  consumption  alone,  it  will  be  difficult 
to  persuade  any  rational  and  instructed  mind  that 
every  cause  of  disease  is  already  removed,  and  that 
further  care  is  superfluous.  My  own  conviction,  on 
the  contrary,  is,  that  by  proper  care,  and  a  stricter 
observance  of  the  laws  of  the  animal  economy  on 
the  part  of  the  parents  and  guardians  of  the  young, 
the  development  of  the  disease  might  be  prevented 
in  a  large  proportion  of  the  number,  and  that  even 
the  robust  would  enjoy  health  in  a  higher  degree, 
and  with  increased  security.  It  is  an  instructive 
proof  of  this,  that  those  who  have  directed  their 
chief  attention  to  training  either  man  or  animals  for 
athletic  exercises,  or  the  race-course,  have  been  led, 
by  observation,  to  attach  the  utmost  importance  to 
pure  air.  Sir  John  Sinclair  has  been  at  pains  to 
collect  the  rules  followed  by  Jackson,  the  celebrated 
trainer,  and  others  of  the  same  profession ;  and  he 
tells  us  that,  by  all  of  them,  the  necessity  of  pure 
air  is  uniformly  insisted  upon.  Sir  John  adds,  that 
the  same  condition  was  deemed  so  essential  by  the 
ancients,  that  the  Roman  Athletae  established  their 
principal  schools  at  Capua  and  Ravenna,  as  the 
most  pure  and  healthy  air  of  all  Italy ;  and  that,  in 
fi)e  training  of  race-horses,  and  even  of  game-cocks, 


SOURCES   OF   ANIMAL   HEAT.  19 1 

the  most  sedulous  attention  is  paid  to  the  purity  of 
the  air  in  which  they  live. 

The  necessity  for  adequate  ventilation  is  nowhere 
more  urgent  than  in  many  of  our  manufactories, 
where,  from  the  length  of  time  (varying  from  10  to 
17  hours  a  day)  during  which  the  operatives  are 
exposed  to  the  evils  of  impure  air,  a  great  sacrifice 
^  of  health  and  happiness  is  constantly  going  on-  The 
'  dust  floating  in  the  air  in  cotton  manufactories  and 
spinning-mills,  and  produced  in  many  trades,  is  a 
very  serious  aggravation  of  their  situation,  as  all 
foreign  bodies  thus  inhaled  into  the  lungs  produce 
irritation  in  their  structure,  and  sooner  or  later  lead 
to  the  development  of  fatal  pulmonary  disease. 

In  the  third  chapter,  I  pointed  out  the  necessity 
of  protecting  the  skin  by  suitable  clothing,  and  men 
tioned  the  intimate  relation  which  subsists  between 
its  function  and  those  of  the  lungs.  We  have  now 
to  consider  this  subject  a  little  further,  as  regards 
the  origin  and  regulation  of  the  animal  heat. 

The  true  sources  of  animal  heat  are  still  imper- 
fectly known,  and  any  discussion  concerning  them 
would  be  too  abstract  for  the  present  volume.  Its 
regular  production,  however,  is  an  essential  condition 
of  life.  If  the  human  body  did  not  possess  within 
itself  the  power  of  generating  heat,  so  as  to  maintain 
nearly  an  equality  of  temperature  in  all  climates,  it 
could  not  long  exist.  In  winter,  and  especially  in 
the  northern  regions,  the  blood  would  speedily  be 
converted  into  a  solid  mass,  and  life  be  extinguished, 
if  no  provision  existed  for  replacing  the  caloric 
withdrawn  from  the  system  by  the  surrounding  cold. 
In  most  parts  of  the  globe,  the  heat  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is,  even  in  summer,  inferior  to  that  of  the 
human  body,  and  consequently  a  loss  of  caloric  is 
always  going  on,  which  must  be  made  up  in  some 
way,*  other  wise  disease  and  death  would  speedily 
ensue.  In  cholera  a  very  remarkable  diminution  of 


192  CONNEXION    BETWEEN    RESPIRATION 

heat  occurs,  and  a  return  to  the  natural  temperature 
is  an  indispensable  step  towards  recovery. 

The  relation  between  the  production  of  animal 
heat,  and  the  condition  of  the  respiratory  func- 
tions, is  the  most  direct  and  remarkable.  In  gene- 
ral, other  conditions  being  alike,  heat  is  generated 
more  or  less  freely,  in  proportion  to  the  size  and 
vigour  of  the  lungs;  and  when  these  are  impaired, 
the  production  of  heat  is  diminished.  Hence  many 
persons  with  imperfectly  developed  lungs,  and  a 
predisposition  to  consumption,  complain  habitually 
of  coldness  of  the  surface  and  feet ;  and  many  who 
were  previously  in  good  health  become  more  and 
more  sensible  to  cold,  in  proportion  as  the  approach 
of  disease  weakens  the  functions  of  the  lungs.  I 
have  noticed  this  increased  sensibility  to  cold,  as  a 
precursor  of  chronic  pulmonary  disease,  both  in  my- 
self and  others,  before  any  other  very  ostensible 
symptom  had  appeared,  and  think  I  have  seen  its 
farther  progress  arrested  by  the  timely  use  of 
proper  means,  where  much  greater  difficulty  would 
have  been  experienced  had  the  warning  not  been 
attended  to. 

The  generation  of  heat  in  the  living  system  being 
so  immediately  connected  with  the  lungs,  we  find 
tjie  temperature  highest  in  those  animals  who  pos- 
sess them  in  the  greatest  perfection,  viz.  birds.  In 
many  species,  the  internal  heat  exceeds  that  of  man 
by  twenty  or  thirty  degrees  ;  while  that  of  man  ex 
ceeds,  to  as  great  an  extent,  the  heat  of  such  of  the 
inferior  animals  as  are  remarkable  for  imperfect  or- 
gans of  respiration. 

The  next  condition  affecting  the  production  of 
animal  heat  is  the  co-operation  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. If  the  mind  be  depressed  by  grief,  tormented 
by  anxiety,  or  absorbed  in  sedentary  meditation,  all 
the  bodily  functions  become  weakened,  the  circula- 
tion languishes,  the  breathing  becomes  slow  and 
scarcely  perceptible,  digestion  is  ill  performed,  and 


AND    ANIMAL    HEAT*  193 

coldness  of  the  extremities  ensues.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  mind  and  nervous  system  be  stimulated 
by  cheerful  exertion  and  agreeable  emotions,  a 
pleasant  glow  pervades  the  frame,  and  external  cold 
is  much  more  easily  resisted. 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food  and  state  of 
the  digestive  functions  are  also  important  conditions. 
This  will  be  readily  assented  to,  when  the  reader 
considers  that  a  due  supply  of  well-formed  chyle  is 
required  to  restore  the  nourishing  properties  of  the 
blood,  and  that  if,  in  consequence  either  of  insuf- 
ficient food  or  of  weak  digestion,  this  be  rendered 
impossible,  all  the  animal  functions,  among  others 
the  production  of  heat,  must  necessarily  be  impaired. 
This  is  the  reason  why  cold  is  felt  most  severely  in 
the  morning  before  breakfast,  and  why  coldness  of 
the  feet  and  chilliness  of  the  surface  are  so  gene- 
rally complained  of  in  indigestion  and  bilious  com- 
plaints. 

Everybody  knows  that  exercise  favours,  and  in- 
dolence obstructs,  the  development  of  animal  heat. 
Exercise  produces  its  effect  by  the  general  stimulus 
which  it  gives  directly  to  the  respiratory  and  circu- 
lating systems,  and  indirectly  to  the  nervous  and  di- 
gestive functions. 

In  attempting,  therefore,  to  increase  the  power 
of  resistance  to  cold  in  the  human  body,  we  ought 
to  take  into  account  all  the  conditions  which  favour 
the  generation  of  heat.  Observation  proves  that 
the  degree  of  cold  required  to  overcome  the  internal 
generating  power,  and  to  extinguish  life,  varies  in 
the  same  individual  at  different  times ;  and  there- 
fore our  protecting  measures  also  ought  to  be  varied 
according  to  the  state  of  the  constitution,  the  vig- 
our of  the  respiratory  and  digestive  functions,  the 
kind  of  food,  and  the  amount  of  exercise.  When 
the  food  is  inadequate,  and  the  mind  depressed,  the 
system  resists  the  impression  of  cold  with  great  dif- 
ficulty ;  and  even  in  Scotland,  where  the  tempera- 
R 


194  CONNEXION    BETWEEN    RESPIRATION 

ture  is  rarely  very  low,  scarcely  a  winter  passes 
without  several  instances  of  death  occurring  from 
exposure  in  ill-fed  and  ill-clothed  individuals,  even 
when  the  thermometer  is  above  the  freezing  point. 
This  happens  usually  when  a  high  wind  aids  the 
rapid  abstraction  of  heat.  Well-fed  and  well-clothed 
guards  of  coaches,  on  the  other  hand,  are  remark* 
able  examples  of  the  power  of  withstanding  low 
temperatures  in  very  exposed  situations,  where  the 
animal  functions  are  in  a  state  of  vigour.  The  re- 
cent Arctic  expeditions  under  Parry  and  Franklin 
afford  similar  instances. 

Having  already,  when  treating  of  the  skin,  suffi- 
ciently explained  the  principles  on  which  clothing 
ought  to  be  adjusted,  it  is  unnecessary  to  recur  ta 
its  utility  as  a  means  of  regulating  the  temperature 
of  the  human  body.  If  the  use  of  suitable  clothing 
is  found  insufficient  to  keep  the  body  warm,  we  may 
infer  with  certainty,, although  no  other  sign  of  bad 
health  has  appeared,  that  some  internal  cause  exists, 
affecting  and  impairing  one  or  other  of  the  sources 
of  animal  heat  already  mentioned,  and  that  till  the 
special  cause  be  discovered  and  removed,  the  evil 
itself  will  continue  undiminished. 

In  winter,  young  people  often  suffer  from  being 
daily  confined  for  many  hours  in  succession,  with- 
out exercise,  in  rooms  insufficiently  heated.  This 
is  a  constant  subject  of  complaint  in  large  acad- 
emies and  boarding-schools,  where  economy  in  fuel 
is  carried  to  its  utmost  limits.  Nothing  tends  more 
than  this  to  lower  the  general  standard  of  health, 
and  prepare  the  individual  for  the  future  inroads  of 
insidious  diseases.  In  scrofulous  children  espe- 
cially, in  whom  the  evolution  of  heat  is  rarely  ener- 
getic, the  evil  is  one  of  great  magnitude,  for  the 
chilblains,  colds,  and  headaches  more  immediately 
complained  of  are  often  its  least  important  conse- 
quences. It  is  far  from  my  wish  to  recommend 
that  the  young  of  either  sex  should  be  brought  up  in 


AND    ANIMAL    HEAT.  195 

the  relaxing  atmosphere  of  overheated  rooms.  On 
the  contrary,  comfortable  warmth  ought,  in  every 
instance,  to  be  drawn  chiefly  from  its  legitimate 
sources,  free  respiration  in  a  pure  air,  abundant  out- 
door exercise,  vigorous  digestion,  and  an  actively 
employed  mind.  If  these  conditions  be  observed, 
little  fire  will  be  required  to  supply  warmth  to  the 
young.  But  if,  as  often  happens,  these  be  neg- 
lected, and  the  generation  of  animal  heat  be  thereby 
reduced  too  low,  we  must  either  allow  the  mischief 
to  go  on  increasing,  or  afford  adequate  warmth  from 
without.  It  is  in  vain  to  think  of  rendering  young 
creatures  hardy  by  subjecting  them  to  the  continued 
influence  of  a  depressing  temperature.  A  few  may 
escape,  but  the  majority  will  certainly  suffer. 

In  the  heating  of  rooms  and  public  halls,  it  is 
proper  to  be  on  pur  guard  against  rendering  the  air 
too  dry,  a  condition  which  is  hurtful  in  causing  too 
rapid  evaporation  from  the  whole  line  of  the  air- 
passages,  as  well  as  from  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  which  is  apt  to  produce  considerable  irritability 
in  the  general  system.  On  the  Continent,  where 
stoves  are  much  in  use,  a  vessel  containing  water 
is  commonly  placed  on  a  sand-bath  on  th<?  top,  that 
moisture  may  be  generated  quickly  or  slowly,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  heat,  and  diffused  through 
the  atmosphere.  In  such  of  our  halls  as  are  warmed 
by  heated  air  or  stoves,  some  such  plan  ought  to  be 
adopted. 

Having  thus  examined  the  chief  conditions  re- 
quired for  healthy  respiration,  it  only  remains  far 
us  to  throw  out  a  few  practical  hints  in  regard  to 
what  may  be  called  the  education  of  the  lungs,  or 
the  means  by  which  their  development  may  be 
favoured,  and  their  functions  improved  in  tone  and 
extent.  Most  of  these  means  have  been  already 
noticed  at  some  length,  and  the  only  important  one 
which  still  claims  our  attention  is  the  exercise  of  th« 
lungs. 


196  EXERCISE    OF    THE    LtTNOS. 

Judicious  exercise  of  the  lungs  is  one  of  the 
most  efficacious  means  which  we  can  employ  for 
promoting  their  development  and  warding  off  then 
diseases.  In  this  respect  the  organs  of  respiration 
closely  resemble  the  muscles  and  all  other  organ- 
ized parts.  They  are  made  to  be  used,  and  if  they 
are  left  in  habitual  inactivity  their  strength  and 
health  are  unavoidably  impaired;  while,  if  their  ex- 
ercise be  ill-timed  or  excessive,  disease  will  as  cer- 
tainly follow. 

The  lungs  may  be  exercised  indirectly  by  such 
kinds  of  bodily  or  muscular  exertion  as  require 
quicker  and  deeper  breathing ;  and  directly  by  the 
employment  of  the  voice  in  speaking,  reading  aloud, 
crying,  or  singing.  In  general,  both  ought  to  be 
conjoined.  But  where  the  chief  object  is  to  im- 
prove the  lungs,  those  kinds  which  have  a  tendency 
to  expand  the  chest,  and  call  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion into  play,  ought  to  be  especially  preferred. 
Rowing  a  boat,  fencing,  quoits,  shuttlecock,  and  the 
proper  use  of  dumb-bells  and  gymnastics  are  of  this 
description.  All  of  them  employ  actively  the  mus- 
cles of  the  chest  and  trunk,  and  excite  the  lungs 
themselves  to  freer  and  fuller  expansion.  Climbing 
up  hill  is,  for  the  same  reason,  an  exercise  of  high 
utility  in  giving  tone  and  freedom  to  the  pulmonary 
functions. 

Where,  either  from  hereditary  predisposition  or 
accidental  causes,  the  chest  is  unusually  weak, 
every  effort  should  be  made,  from  infancy  upwards, 
to  favour  the  growth  and  strength  of  the  lungs  by 
the  habitual  use  of  such  of  the  above-mentioned  ex- 
ercises as  can  most  easily  be  practised.  The  ear- 
lier they  are  resorted  to,  and  the  more  steadily  they 
are  pursued,  the  more  certainly  will  their  beneficial 
results  be  experienced.  In  their  employment,  the 
principles  explained  in  the  chapter  on  the  muscles 
ought  to  be  adhered  to. 

Habitual  exercise  in  a  hilly  country,  and  the  fre- 


EXERCISE    OF    THE    LUNGS.  197 

quent  ascent  of  acclivities,  especially  in  pursuit  of 
an  object,  are  well  known  to  have  a  powerful  effect 
in  improving  the  wind  and  strengthening  the  lungs, 
which  is  just  another  way  of  saying  that  they  in- 
crease the  capacity  of  the  chest,  promote  free  cir- 
culation through  the  pulmonary  vessels,  and  lead  to 
the  more  complete  oxygenation  of  the  blood. 
Hence  the  vigorous  appetite,  the  increased  muscu- 
lar power,  and  cheerfulness  of  mind  so  commonly 
felt  by  the  invalid  on  his  removal  to  the  mountains 
are  not  to  be  wondered  at.  I  was  myself  sensible 
of  advantage  from  this  kind  of  exercise  during  a 
Highland  excursion.  The  necessity  of  frequent 
and  deep  inspirations,  and  the  stimulus  thus  given 
to  the  general  and  pulmonary  circulation,  had  an 
obvious  effect  in  increasing  the  capacity  of  the 
»ungs,  and  the  power  of  bearing  exertion  without 
fatigue.  Even  when  I  was  wearied,  the  fatigue 
went  off  much  sooner  than  after  a  walk  of  equal 
length  on  a  level  road,  and  it  was  unattended  with 
the  languor  which  generally  accompanied  the  latter. 
In  fact,  the  most  agreeable  feeling  which  1  expe- 
rienced during  the  whole  time  was  on  resting  after 
undergoing,  in  ascending  a  hill,  a  degree  of  exer- 
tion sufficient  to  accelerate  the  breathing,  and  bring 
out  a  considerable  degree  of  perspiration.  A  light- 
ness and  activity  of  mind,  and  freedom  about  the 
chest  which  I  never  felt  to  the  same  extent  at  any 
other  time,  followed  such  excursions,  and  made  the 
fatigue  comparatively  light. 

Before  such  practices,  however,  can  be  resorted 
to  with  advantage,  or  even  with  safety,  there  must 
be  nothing  in  the  shape  of  active  disease  existing. 
If  there  be,  the  adoption  of  such  exercise  will,  in 
all  probability,  occasion  the  most  serious  injury. 
This  also  I  experienced  in  my  own  case,  as,  for 
many  months  at  an  earlier  stage  of  convalescence, 
going  up  a  stair,  ascending  the  most  gentle  acclivity, 
or  speaking  aloud  for  a  few  minutes,  was  equally 


198         EXERCISE  OF  THE  LUNGS. 

fatiguing  and  hurtful,  and  often  brought  on  cough, 
and  occasionally^  a  slight  spitting  of  blood.  At  that 
time,  riding  on  horseback,  which  exercises  the 
body  without  hurrying  the  breathing,  was  especially 
useful.  The  advantage  of  these  exercises  in  giving 
tone  and  capacity  to  the  lungs,  where  debility  rather 
than  disease  is  complained  of,  is  shown  in  their 
being  regularly  resorted  to  in  preparing  for  the 
race-course  and  for  the  field.  The  true  sportsman 
puts  himself  in  training  as  well  as  his  dog  or  his 
horse,  and  fits  himself  for  the  moors  by  regular  ex- 
cursions previous  to  the  12th  of  August.  By  so 
doing  he  improves  his  wind  and  increases  his  mus- 
cular strength  to  a  remarkable  extent  in  a  very  short 
time. 

When  no  active  pulmonary  disease  exists,  these 
-exercises  may,  with  the  best  effects,  be  frequently 
carried  so  far  as  to  induce  free  perspiration  ;  only 
great  care  ought  to  be  taken  immediately  after,  to 
rub  the  surface  of  the  body  thoroughly  dry,  and  to 
change  the  dress.  It  is  quite  ascertained,  that  with 
these  precautions  perspiration  from  exercise  is  the 
reverse  of  debilitating.  It  equalizes  and  gently 
stimulates  the  circulation,  relieves  the  internal  or- 
gans, improves  digestion,  and  invigorates  the  skin. 
Jackson  testifies  strongly  to  these  results  when  he 
declares  that  the  severe  exercise  incurred  in  train- 
ing not  only  improves  the  lungs,  but  always  renders 
the  skin  "  quite  clear,  even  though  formerly  subject  to 
eruptions"*  These  assertions  are,  of  course,  to  be 
received  as  the  statements  of  a  man  partial  to  his 
own  art ;  but  they  are  in  accordance  with  experi- 
ence, and  with  the  laws  of  the  animal  functions,  so 
far  as  these  are  known.  They  therefore  merit  the 
consideration  of  professional  men,  and  of  those 
whose  features  are  often  disfigured  by  eruptions 

*  Code  of  Health,  5th  edition.    Appendix,  p.  37. 


EXERCISE  OF  THE  LUNGS.          199 

which  they  find  it  difficult  to  remove  by  any  kind  of 
medicine. 

I  need  hardly  say,  that  when  wishing  to  favour 
the  development  of  the  mugs,  we  ought  to  be  scru- 
pulous in  avoiding  such  positions  of  the  body  as 
hinder  their  full  expansion.  Tailors,  shoemakers, 
clerks  at  a  writing-desk,  and  the  like,  are  unfavour- 
ably situated  in  this  respect,  as  their  bent  position 
constrains  the  chest,  and  impedes  the  breathing  and 
circulation. 

Direct  exercise  of  the  lungs,  in  speaking,  reciting, 
singing,  and  playing  on  wind  instruments,  is  very 
influential  for  good  or  for  evil,  according  as  it  is  in- 
dulged in  with  or  without  due  reference  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  individual.  If  it  is,  nothing  tends 
more  to  expand  and  give  tone  and  health  to  these 
important  organs ;  but  if  either  ill-timed  or  carried 
to  excess,  nothing  can  be  more  detrimental. 

The  crying  and  sobbing  of  children  contribute 
much  to  their  future  health,  unless  they  are  caused 
by  disease,  and  carried  to  a  very  unusual  extent. 
The  loud  laugh  and  noisy  exclamations  attending 
the  sports  of  the  young  have  an  evident  relation  to 
the  same  beneficial  end  ;  and  ought  therefore  to  be 
encouraged  instead  of  being  repressed,  as  they  are 
often  sought  to  be,  by  those  who,  having  forgotten 
that  they  themselves  were  once  young,  seek  in 
childhood  the  gravity  and  decorum  of  more  advanced 
age.  I  have  already  noticed,  at  page  109,  an  in- 
stance on  a  large  scale,  in  which  the  inmates  of  an 
institution  were,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  their 
health,  shut  up  within  the  limits  of  their  hall  for  six 
months,  and  not  allowed  to  indulge  in  any  noisy  and 
romping  sports.  The  aim  of  the  directors  was  un- 
doubtedly the  purest  benevolence,  but  from  their 
want  of  knowledge,  their  object  was  defeated, 
and  the  arrangement  itself  became  the  instrument 
of  evil. 

Beneficial  as  the  direct  exercise  of  the  lungs  is 


200        EXERCISE  OF  THE  LUNGS. 

thus  shown  to  be  in  strengthening  the  chest,  its  in- 
fluence extends  still  farther.  If  we  examine  the 
position  of  the  lungs  as  represented  in  the  figure  on 
page  169,  we  shall  see,  that,  when  fully  inflated, 
they  must  necessarily  push  downwards  and  flatten 
the  moveable  arch  of  the  diaphragm  D  D,  by  which 
they  are  separated  from  the  belly  or  abdomen.  This 
alteration,  however,  cannot  take  place  without  the 
diaphragm  in  its  turn  pushing  down  the  liver, 
stomach,  and  bowels,  which  it  accordingly  does, 
causing  them  to  project  forwards  and  outwards. 
But  no  sooner  are  the  lungs  fully  inflated  than  the 
contained  air  is  again  thrown  out.  The  lungs  di- 
minish in  size  :  the  diaphragm  rises,  and  with  it  all 
the  contents  of  the  abdomen  return  to  their  former 
position.  The  whole  digestive  apparatus  is  thus 
subjected  to  a  continual  pressure  and  change  of 
place,  and  the  stimulus  thence  arising  is,  in  truth, 
essential  to  the  healthy  performance  of  the  digestive 
functions,  and  is  one  of  the  means  arranged  by  the 
Creator  for  the  purpose.  Consequently,  if  the  lungs 
be  rarely  called  into  active  exercise,  riot  only  do 
they  suffer,  but  an  important  condition  of  digestion 
being  withdrawn,  the  stomach  and  bowels  also  become 
weakened,  and  indigestion  and  costiveness  make 
their  appearance.  I  have  already  alluded  to  this 
subject  in  the  chapter  on  muscular  exercise;  but 
the  principle  will  now  be  better  understood  with  the 
aid  of  the  figure. 

After  this  exposition,  I  need  hardly  say  that  the 
loud  and  distinct  speaking  enforced  in  many  public 
schools  is  productive  of  much  good  to  the  young, 
and  that  in  this  respect  the  occasional  songs  in 
which  all  are  required  to  join  in  the  Infant  Schools, 
and  other  institutions,  are  much  to  be  commended. 
Let  any  one  who  doubts  their  efficacy  as  exercises 
of  the  lungs,  attend  to  what  passes  in  his  own  body 
on  reading  aloud  a  single  paragraph,  and  he  will 
find,  not  only  that  deep  inspirations  and  full  expira- 


EXERCISE  OF  THE  LUNGS.         201 

tions  are  encouraged,  but  that  a  considerable  im- 
pulse is  communicated  to  the  bowels,  affording  a 
marked  contrast  to  the  slight  breathing  and  quies- 
cent posture  of  those  whose  voices  never  rise  above 
a  whisper. 

Reading  aloud,  public  speaking,  and  lecturing  are 
excellent  exercises  for  developing  the  lungs  and  the 
chest.  But,  as  they  require  some  exertion,  they 
ought  to  be  indulged  in  with  prudence,  and  with  con- 
stant reference  to  the  constitution  and  health  of  the 
individual.  When  early  resorted  to,  and  steadily 
persevered  in,  they  are  useful  in  warding  off  disease 
and  communicating  strength  to  an  important  func- 
tion. But  when  begun  suddenly,  and  carried  to  ex- 
cess by  persons  with  weak  lungs,  they  are  more 
directly  injurious  than  almost  any  other  cause.  It 
is  not  uncommon  for  young  divines  to  give  them- 
selves up  to  preaching,  without  any  previous  prepa- 
ration for  the  effort  which  it  requires,  and  to  expe- 
rience, in  consequence,  pains  in  the  chest,  spitting 
of  blood,  and  other  dangerous  forms  of  disease, 
which  often  extinguish  their  brightest  prospects  in 
the  morning  of  life.  Sacrifices  of  this  kind  are  the 
more  to  be  lamented,  because  it  is  probable,  that, 
by  a  well-planned  system  of  gradual  preparation, 
many  who  fall  victims  might  find  in  their  profession 
even  a  source  of  safety. 

The  late  illustrious  Cuvier,  as  was  mentioned  at 
page  135,  is  considered  to  have  been  saved  from  an 
early  death  by  his  appointment  to  a  professorship 
leading  him  to  the  moderate  and  regular  exercise  of 
his  lungs  in  teaching, — a  practice  which  soon  re- 
moved the  delicacy  of  chest  to  which  he  was  sub- 
ject, and  enabled  him  to  pass  uninjured  through  a 
long  life  of  active  usefulness.  Other  examples  of 
the  same  kind  might  be  mentioned.  But  it  is  im- 
portant to  observe,  that  in  all  of  them  the  exercise 
was,  at  all  times,  accurately  proportioned  to  the  ex- 
isting state  of  the  lungs.  Had  active  disease  ex- 


802  EXERCISE    OF    THE    LUNGS. 

feted,  or  the  exertion  required  been  beyond  what  the 
lungs  were  fully  able  to  bear,  the  effect  would  have 
been,  not  to  improve  health,  but  to  destroy  life ;  and 
this  condition  of  accurate  relation  between  the 
amount  of  exercise  and  the  state  of  the  organization 
must  never  for  a  moment  be  overlooked.  With  a 
little  care,  however,  the  point  at  which  direct  exer- 
cise of  the  lungs  ought  to  stop  may  easily  be  deter- 
mined by  observing  its  effects. 

The  same  principle  leads  to  another  obvious  rule  \ 
When  disease  of  any  kind  exists  in  the  chest,  the 
exercise  of  the  lungs  in  speaking,  reading,  and  sing- 
ing, and  also  in  ordinary  muscular  exertion,  ought 
either  to  be  entirely  refrained  from  or  strictly  regu- 
lated by  professional  advice.  When  a  joint  is  sore 
or  inflamed,  we  know  that  motion  impedes  its  re- 
covery. When  the  eye  is  affected,  we,  for  a  similar 
reason,  shut  out  the  light ;  and  when  the  stomach  is 
disordered,  we  have  respect  to  its  condition,  and 
become  more  careful  about  diet.  The  lungs  demand 
a  treatment  founded  on  the  same  general  principle. 
If  they  are  inflamed,  they  must  not  be  exercised^ 
otherwise  mischief  will  ensue.  Hence,  in  a  com- 
mon cold  of  any  severity,  silence,  which  is  the  ab- 
sence of  direct  pulmonary  exercise,  ought  to  be 
preserved,  and  will  in  truth  be  its  own  reward.  In 
severe  cases,  and  in  acute  inflammations  of  the 
chest,  this  rule  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is 
common  to  meet  with  patients  who  cannot  speak 
three  words  without  exciting  a  fit  of  coughing,  and 
who,  notwithstanding,  cannot  be  persuaded  that 
peaking  retards  their  recovery.  In  like  manner, 
in  spitting  of  blood,  and  in  the  early  stage  of  tuber- 
cular consumption,  when  the  breathing  cannot  be 
excited  without  direct  mischief,  it  is  often  difficult 
to  convince  the  patient  of  the  necessity  of  silence. 
He  perhaps  does  not  feel  pain  on  attempting  to 
speak,  and  says  that  "  it  merely  raises  a  short  tick- 
ling eough,  which  is  nothing."  But  if  he  persists, 


PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  IN  THE  LUNGS.      203 

dearly-bought  experience  will  teach  him  his  error, 
and  dispose  him  to  regret,  as  did  a  lamented  friend 
of  the  author,  that  a  few  weeks  of  the  many  years 
usually  dedicated  to  the  classics  had  not  been  de- 
voted to  communicating  to  him  some  knowledge  of 
the  structure  and  functions  of  his  own  body.  In 
the  instance  alluded  to,  after  spitting  of  blood  had 
been  induced  by  severe  bodily  labour,  the  patient 
continued  talking  almost  the  whole  day  to  the  visit- 
ers  and  inmates  of  a  large  public  establishment, 
and  believed  himself  all  the  time  to  be  very  careful, 
as  he  said  he  was  no  longer  exerting  his  body. 
When  the  error  was  pointed  out,  and  the  mechanism 
of  the  lungs  explained  to  him,  he  deeply  bewailed 
the  ignorance  which  had  allowed  him  to  act  in  a 
manner  so  pernicious. 

All  violent  exercise  ought,  for  similar  reasons,  to 
be  refrained  from,  during  at  least  the  active  stages 
of  cold.  Every  thing  which  hurries  the  breathing, 
whether  walking  fast,  ascending  an  acclivity,  or 
reading  aloud,  has  the  same  effect  on  the  diseased 
lungs  that  motion  of  the  bones  has  on  an  inflamed 
joint.  It  seems  to  me,  that  many  people  hurt  them^ 
selves  much  more  by  the  active  exercise  they  take 
during  a  severe  cold  than  by  the  mere  exposure  to 
the  weather.  It  is  well  known,  that  a  person  when 
colded  may  go  out  for  a  short  time,  even  in  an  open 
carriage  more  safely  than  on  foot,  and  there  is  much 
reason  to  believe,  that  it  is  the  absence  of  active  ex- 
ertion of  the  lungs  in  the  former  case  which  makes 
the  exposure  less  hurtful. 

After  al1  active  disease  has  been  subdued,  or  when 
nothing  bux  delicacy  remains,  the  adequate  exercise 
of  the  lungs  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  promoting 
effectual  recovery.  Those  parents,  therefore,  act 
most  erroneously,  who,  in  their  apprehensive  anx- 
iety for  the  protection  of  their  delicate  children, 
scrupulously  prohibit  them  from  every  kind  of  exer- 
cise which  requires  the  least  effort,  and  shut  them 


204       PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  IN  THE  LUNGS. 

up  from  the  open  air  during  winter,  with  the  false 
hope  of  thereby  warding  off  colds  and  protecting 
their  lungs.  I  have  seen  the  greatest  delicacy  of 
constitution  thus  engendered,  especially  where  an 
undue  quantity  of  warm  clothing  was  at  the  same 
time  employed.  When  tested  by  the  principles 
above  explained,  such  conduct  is  found  to  be  a» 
ill  adapted  as  possible  to  the  end  in  view,  and  ut- 
terly at  variance  with  all  the  laws  of  the  animal 
economy. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  time  in  the  life  of  a 
person  born  with  a  predisposition  to  consumption  is 
that  of  puberty,  comprising  from  the  commencement 
of  rapid  growth  to  the  full  consolidation  of  the  sys- 
tem about  or  after  the  twenty-first  year.  In  most 
young  people,  the  transition  from  adolescence  to 
maturity  is  so  rapid,  that  for  two  or  three  years  all 
the  animal  pov/ers  are  tasked  to  enable  nutrition  to 
keep  pace  with  growth,  and  a  corresponding  debility 
of  both  body  and  mind  is  often  observed  to  co-exist, 
indicating,  in  the  clearest  manner,  the  necessity  of 
a  temporary  remission  from  such  studies  and  occu- 
pations as  require  much  mental  exertion  or  confine- 
ment within  doors.  The  development  and  health 
of  the  physical  system  ought  then  to  be  almost  ex- 
clusively attended  to ;  and  when  the  bod;"  has  ac- 
quired its  solidity,  the  mental  faculties  will  again 
become  active.  I  have  seen  instances  where  a 
knowledge  of  the  latter  fact  afforded  substantial 
consolation  to  young  men  who,  while  their  bodies 
were  growing  rapidly,  were  apt  to  become  despond- 
ent, on  account  of  the  unusual  sluggishness  and 
inefficiency  of  their  intellectual  powers.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  when  the  growth  and  con- 
solidation were  completed,  the  brain  vigorously  re- 
sumed its  functions. 

In  such  circumstances,  relaxation  from  study, 
residence  in  the  country,  exercise  in  the  open  air, 
plenty  of  food,  and  no  care,  will  often  do  immense 


PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  IN  THE  LUNGS.      205 

good,  if  sufficiently  persisted  in,  and  go  far  to  pro- 
tect the  careful  patient  against  the  future  invasion 
of  consumption.  Whereas,  if,  under  the  mistaken 
notion  that  such  precautionary  measures  are  a  waste 
of  time,  a  delicate  growing  youth  is  allowed  to  con- 
tinue at  his  studies  or  his  desk  till  disease  has  actu- 
ally commenced,  the  disappointed  parent  will  often 
discover  that  it  is  too  late  to  take  alarm  when  health 
'  s  gone. 

It  is  at  the  approach  of  manhood,  when  both 
mind  and  body  are  in  a  state  of  transition,  that  dis- 
sipatipn  is  most  indulged  in,  and  presses  with  its 
deadliest  force.  Many  delicate  youths  of  both 
sexes  are  carried  off,  who  would  have  escaped  with- 
out injury,  if  they  could  have  been  persuaded  to  act 
with  prudence  during  these  two  or  three  critical 
years.  Many,  I  am  constrained  to  say,  first  learn 
the  means  of  their  destruction  in  boarding-schools 
and  places  of  public  resort,  and  that  often  when  no 
mischief  is  suspected  by  their  respectable  teachers. 
On  this  topic,  however,  the  non-professional  char- 
acter of  the  present  work  precludes  me  from  enter- 
ing into  details. 

Before  quitting  this  important  subject,  I  may  add 
another  word  of  advice,  in  regard  to  those  who  are 
predisposed  to  consumption  or  weakness  of  chest. 
As  soon  as  active  growth  commences,  permanent 
benefit  may  be  derived  from  removal,  for  a  few 
years,  to  a  milder  and  less  variable  climate.  Many 
who  are  sent  abroad  only  to  die  painfully  in  a  foreign 
land,  in  the  noonday  of  life,  might  have  lived  for 
years  in  the  enjoyment  of  health  and  usefulness, 
had  they  been  sent  abroad  before  the  appearance  of 
disease,  instead  of  after  its  unequivocal  commence- 
ment. The  previous  delicacy,  whence  the  suscep- 
tibility to  colds  and  pulmonary  affections  arises, 
ought  to  attract  the  earliest  attention,  and  excite 
the  most  persevering  efforts  for  its  removal.  If  it 
be  allowed  to  make  progress  till  consumption  has 
8 


206        STRUCTURE  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

commenced,  medicine  may  come  armed  with  its 
most  powerful  remedies,  and  directed  by  the  most 
consummate  skill,  but  it  will  too  often  come  in  vain, 
for  the  patient  will  be  no  longer  within  its  reach. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Nervous  System — Structure  of  the  Brain — Its  Functions — 
Connexion  between  the  Mind  and  Brain — Conditions  of 
Health  in  the  Brain— Hereditary  Predisposition — Influence 
of  the  Blood  on  the  Brain — Influence  of  Exercise  on  the 
Brain — Effects  of  insufficient  Exercise— Effects  of  excessive 
Exercise  at  different  Ages — Case  of  Sir  H.  Davy — Rules  for 
the  proper  Exercise  of  the  Brain — Best  Time  for  Mental 
Exertion — Regularity  essential— Repetition — Every  Mental 
Power  to  be  exercised  directly  on  its  own  Objects — Illustra- 
tions— Influence  of  the  Nervous  System  on  the  general 
Health — Examples. 

IN  man  and  the  higher  order  of  animals,  the  ner- 
vous system  is  composed  of,  1st,  the  brain ;  2d,  the 
spinal  marrow ;  and,  3d,  the  nerves.  But,  on  the 
present  occasion,  it  will  be  necessary  to  confine  our 
remarks  chiefly  to  the  brain ;  and,  even  regarding 
it,  to  offer  observations  only  on  such  points  as  all 
are  agreed  upon,  and  the  general  reader  can  easily 
comprehend. 

The  brain  is  that  large  organized  mass  which, 
along  with  its  enveloping  membranes,  completely 
fills  the  cavity  of  the  scull.  It  is  the  seat  of  thought, 
of  feeling,  and  of  consciousness,  and  the  centre  to- 
wards which  all  impressions  made  on  the  nerves 
distributed  through  the  body  are  conveyed,  and  from 
which  the  commands  of  the  will  are  transmitted  to 
put  the  various  parts  in  motion. 

The  structure  of  the  brain  is  so  complicated,  that- 
less  is  known  of  its  true  nature  than  of  that  of  almost 


STRUCTURE  Or  THE  BRAIN.        207 

any  other  organ.  It  would  therefore  be  entirely 
out  of  place  to  attempt  to  describe  it  here,  further 
than  by  stating  generally  its  principal  divisions. 
On  sawing  off  the  top  of  the  scull,  and  removing  the 
firm  tough  membrane  called  dura  mater  (hard  mo- 
ther), which  adheres  closely  to  its  concave  surface, 
the  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  presents  itself,  marked 
on  the  surface  with  a  great  variety  of  undulating 
windings  or  convolutions,  and  extending  from  the 
fore  to  the  back  part  of  the  head,  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  an  ellipse.  In  the  middle  line,  a  deep  fissure 
is  perceived,  into  which  dips  a  fold  of  the  dura 
mater,  named  the  falx,  separating  the  brain,  in  its 
whole  length,  into  two  halves,  or  hemispheres,  as 
they  are  called.  Each  hemisphere  is,  in  its  turn, 
divided, — but  in  a  less  marked  way,  as  the  divisions 
are  observable  only  on  its  inferior  surface, — into 
three  portions,  called,  from  their  situations,  the  an- 
terior, middle,  and  posterior  lobes,  each  occupying 
nearly  a  third  of  the  whole  length  of  the  brain. 
The  anterior  lobe  occupies  the  forehead ;  the  Twiddle 
is  all  the  portion  of  brain  lying  above  and  a  Sittle  in 
front  of  the  ears ;  and  the  posterior  fills  the  back 
part  of  the  head. 

Beneath  the  posterior  lobe,  a  strong  fold  of  the 
dura  mater,  called  the  tentorium,  is  extended  hori- 
zontally to  support  and  separate  it  from  the  cerebel- 
lum, or  little  brain  lying  below  it.  The  cerebellum 
forms  the  last  great  division  of  the  contents  of  the 
scull.  Its  surface  is  marked  by  convolutions,  diifer- 
ng,  however,  in  size  and  appearance  from  those  ob- 
served in  the  brain. 

Adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  convolutions,  and 
consequently  dipping  down  into  and  lining  the  sulei 
or  furrows  between  them,  another  membrane,  of  a 
finer  texture,  and  great  vascularity,  called  the  pia 
mater,  is  found.  The  blood-vessels  going  to  the  brain 
branch  out  so  extensively  on  the  pia  mater,  that, 
*-hen  a  little  inflamed,  it  seems  to  constitute  a  pei . 


208  FUNCTIONS    OF    THE  BRAIN. 

feet  vascular  net-work.  This  minute  subdivision  is 
of  use  in  preventing  the  blood  from  being  impelled 
with  too  great  force  against  the  delicate  tissue  of 
the  brain. 

A  third  covering,  called  the  arachnoid  membrane, 
from  its  fineness  resembling  that  of  a  spider's  web, 
is  interposed  bet  ween  the  other  two,  and  is  frequently 
the  seat  of  disease. 

On  examining  the  convolutions  in  different  brains, 
they  are  found  to  vary  a  good  deal  in  size,  depth, 
and  general  appearance.  In  the  various  regions  of 
the  same  brain  they  are  also  different,  but  preserve 
the  same  general  aspect.  Thus  they  are  always 
small  and  numerous  in  the  anterior  lobe,  larger  and 
deeper  in  the  middle,  and  still  larger  in  the  posterior 
lobe. 

The  brain  receives  an  unusually  large  supply  of 
blood,  in  comparison  with  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  but 
the  nature  of  its  circulation,  although  a  very  interest- 
ing subject  of  study,  being  only  indirectly  con- 
nected with  our  present  purpose,  cannot  now  be  dis- 
cussed. 

Most  physiologists  are  agreed  that  the  different 
parts  of  the  brain  perform  distinct  functions,  and  that 
these  functions  are  the  highest  and  most  important 
in  the  animal  economy  ;  but  there  is  great  discrep- 
ancy of  opinion  as  to  what  the  function  of  each  part 
is,  and  as  to  the  best  mode  of  removing  the  obscu- 
rity in  which  the  subject  is  involved.  It  would  be 
useless  to  examine  here  the  merits  of  the  respective 
theories  and  modes  of  inquiry,  as  the  attempt  would 
lead  us  too  far  from  the  practical  aim  of  the  work. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  all  physiologists  and  philoso- 
phers regard  the  brain  as  the  organ  of  mind ;  that 
most  of  them  consider  it  as  an  aggregate  of  parts, 
each  charged  with  a  specific  function ;  and  that  a 
large  majority,  with  Gall  and  Cuvier  at  their  head, 
regard  the  anterior  lobe  as  more  immediately  the 


FUNCTIONS    OF    THE    BRAIV. 

seat  of  the  intellectual  faculties.*  Further,  by  nearly 
universal  consent,  the  brain  is  held  to  be  also  the 
seat  of  the  passions  and  moral  feelings  of  our  na- 
ture, as  well  as  of  consciousness  and  every  other 
mental  act,  and  to  be  the  chief  source  of  that  ner- 
vous influence  which  is  indispensable  to  the  vitality 
and  action  of  every  organ  of  the  body.  There  are 
so  few  exceptions  to  the  general  belief  of  these  prop- 
ositions, that  I  consider  myself  fairly  entitled  to 
hold  them  as  established. 

Many  animals  possess  individual  senses  or  instincts 
in  greater  perfection  than  man,  but  there  is  not  one 
which  can  be  compared  with  him  in  the  number  and 
range  of  its  faculties ;  and,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, there  is  not  one  which  approaches  him  in 
the  development  and  perfection  of  its  nervous  sys- 
tem. No  organ  can  execute  more  than  a  single 
function  ;  and,  accordingly,  even  the  Edinburgh  Re- 
view admits,  that,  in  precise  proportion  as  we  as- 
cend in  the  scale  of  creation,  and  the  animal  ac- 
quires a  sense,  a  power,  or  an  instinct,  do  its  nerves 
multiply  and  "its  brain  improve  in  structure  and 
augment  in  volume,  each  addition  being  marked  by 
some  addition  or  amplification  of  the  powers  of  the  ani- 
mal, until  in  man  we  behold  it  possessing  some  parts  of 
which  animals  are  destitute,  and  wanting  none  which 
they  possess"  so  that  "'we  are  enabled  to  associate 
every  faculty  which  gives  superiority,  with  some  addition 
to  the  nervous  mass,  even  from  the  smallest  indications 
of  sensation  and  will,  up  to  the  highest  degree  of  sensi-  , 
bility,  judgment,  and  expression"^ 

It  is  extremely  important  to  bear  in  mind  this  con- 

*  In  speaking  of  the  cerebral  lobes  being  the  place  "  where 
all  the  sensations  take  a  distinct  form  and  leave  durable  impres- 
sions," Cuvier  adds,  "  L'anatomie  compares  en  offre  une  autre 
confirmation  dans  la  proportion  constante  du  volume  de  ces  lobes  avec 
led^ri  dj  intelligence  des  Animaux" — Vide  Report  to  the  Institute 
on  Flonrens's  Experiments  in  1822. 

t  Edinburgh  Review,  No.  xciv.  p.  442-3. 


210       FWNCTIONS  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

stant  relation  between  mental  power  and  develop- 
ment of  brain.  It  not  only  explains  why  capacities 
and  dispositions  are  so  different,  but  shows  incon- 
trovertibly  that  the  cultivation  of  the  moral  and  in- 
tellectual faculties  can  be  successfully  carried  on 
only  by  acting  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  organiza- 
tion, and  associating  together  those  faculties,  the 
organs  of  which  are  simultaneously  progressive  in 
their  growth.  It  is  a  law,  for  instance,  that  alter- 
nate periods  of  activity  and  repose  conduce  to  the 
strength  and  development  of  every  organ,  and  to  the 
easy  performance  of  its  function,  and  that  excess  in 
either  is  alike  hurtful  in  its  consequences.  If,  there- 
foie,  in  our  anxiety  for  the  advancement  of  a  child 
in  a  favourite  pursuit,  we  urge  it  to  incessant  and 
unvaried  exertion  of  the  same  kind  for  many  hours 
a  day,  we  violate  this  law  in  neglecting  the  neces- 
sary intervals  of  rest,  and  thus  run  the  risk  of  injur- 
ing the  health  of  the  brain,  and  entirely  defeating 
our  object.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  withdraw 
the  child  altogether  from  the  pursuit,  for  weeks  or 
months  at  a  time,  as  happens  during  the  vacation  of 
a  school,  we  violate  the  law  again,  in  depriving  the 
faculties  of  their  necessary  exercise,  and  thus  run 
the  risk  of  sacrificing  the  improvement  already 
gained,  and  of  diminishing  the  mental  power.  In 
neither  case  is  the  brain  exercised  in  conformity 
with  the  organic  laws,  and  consequently  we  look  in 
vain  for  the  same  amount  of  improvement  which 
would  have  followed  their  fulfilment ;  and  yet,  so  far 
^s  the  physiology  of  the  brain  from  being  considered 
as  the  only  sound  basis  on  which  the  science  of 
education  can  rest,  that  very  few  teachers  or  moral- 
ists are  aware  that  the  organic  laws  have  any  con- 
nexion with  the  operations  of  mind,  and  still  fewer 
have  ever  thought  of  adapting  their  practice  to  the 
dictates  of  these  laws  ;  although  no  truth  in  educa- 
tion or  philosophy  can  be  more  clearly  proved,  or 


CONNEXION  BE-nVKEN  THE  MIND  AND  BRAIN.    211 

more  beneficially  applied,  than  that  on  which  I  am 
now  insisting. 

In  thus  treating  of  the  brain  as  the  indispensable 
instrument  or  organ  of  the  mental  faculties,  I  must 
not  be  understood  as  representing  mind  and  brain  to 
be  one  and  the  same  thing.  I  mean  only  that  the 
brain  is  necessarily  engaged  in  every  intellectual 
and  moral  operation,  exactly  as  the  eye  is  in  every 
act  of  vision ;  and  that,  as  the  mind  cannot  see  with- 
out the  intervention  of  the  eye,  so  neither  can  it 
think  or  feel,  during  life,  except  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  brain.  Consequently,  it  would  be 
as  reasonable  and  logical  to  infer,  from  the  former 
proposition,  that  the  eye  is  the  mind,  or  the  mind 
the  eye,  as  to  infer  from  the  latter  that  the  brain  is 
the  mind,  or  the  mind  the  brain. 

It  requires,  however,  to  be  distinctly  understood, 
that  activity  of  mind  and  activity  of  brain  are  in- 
separable, and  that  every  change  in  the  one  is  at- 
tended by  a  corresponding  change  in  the  condition 
of  the  other.  If,  by  the  excessive  use  of  stimulants, 
the  brain  be  highly  excited,  the  mind  will  be  dis- 
turbed in  an  equal  degree,  as  is  exemplified  every 
day  in  the  phenomena  of  intoxication  ;  and  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  mind  be  suddenly  roused  by  violent 
passions,  the  vessels  of  the  brain  will  instantly  take 
on  increased  action,  redness  will  suffuse  the  face, 
and  excitement  of  the  brain  will  show  itself  in  char- 
acters as  legible  as  if  produced  by  a  physical  cause. 

The  mind  and  brain  being  thus  inseparably  asso- 
ciated during  life,  it  becomes  an  object  of  primary 
importance  to  discover  the  laws  by  which  their 
healthy  action  is  regulated,  that  we  may  yield  them 
willing  obedience,  and  escape  the  numerous  evils 
consequent  on  their  violation.  To  this  inquiry  the 
following  pages  shall  be  devoted. 

The  brain  being  a  part  of  the  animal  system,  and 
subject  to  the  same  general  laws  as  every  other  or- 
gan, the  reader  will  not  be  surprised  that  I  should. 


212     HEREDITARY  PREDISPOSITION  TO  DISEASE. 

as  in  the  case  of  the  lungs,  state  a  sound  original 
constitution  as  the  first  condition  of  its  healthy  ac- 
tion. If  the  brain  possess  from  birth  a  freedom 
from  all  hereditary  taints  and  imperfections,  and 
have  acquired  no  unusual  susceptibility  from  inju- 
dicious treatment  in  infancy,  it  will  withstand  a  great 
deal  in  after-life  before  its  health  will  give  way. 
But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  either  it  inherit  deficien- 
cies, or  early  mismanagement  have  subsequently 
entailed  upon  it  an  unusual  proneness  to  morbid  ac- 
tion, it  will  give  way  under  circumstances  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  perfectly  innocuous; 
and,  accordingly,  it  may  be  truly  said,  that  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  causes  which  predispose  to  nervous 
and  mental  disease  is  the  transmission  of  a  heredi- 
tary tendency  from  parents  to  children,  producing  in 
the  latter  an  unusual  liability  to  the  same  maladies 
under  which  the  parents  have  laboured. 

Even  where  the  defect  in  the  parent  is  merely 
some  peculiarity  of  disposition  or  temper,  amount- 
ing perhaps  to  eccentricity,  it  is  astonishing  how 
clearly  its  influence  on  some  one  or  other  of  the 
progeny  may  be  traced,  and  how  completely  a  con- 
stitutional bias  of  this  description  may  interfere 
with  a  man's  happiness  or  success  in  life.  I  have 
seen  instances  in  which  it  pervaded  every  member 
of  a  family,  and  others  in  which  it  affected  only  one 
or  two.  When  the  original  eccentricity  is  on  the 
mother's  side,  and  she  is  gifted  with  much  force  of 
character,  the  evil  extends  more  widely  among  the 
children  than  when  it  is  on  the  father's  side.  Where 
both  parents  are  descended  from  tainted  families, 
the  progeny  is  of  course  more  deeply  affected  than 
where  one  of  them  Ls  from  a  pure  stock  ;  and,  seem- 
ingly for  this  reason,  hereditary  predisposition  is  a 
more  usual  cause  of  nervous  disease  in  the  higher 
classes,  who  intermarry  much  with  each  other,  than 
in  the  lower,  who  have  a  wider  choice. 

Unhappily,  it  is  not  merely  as  a  cause  of  disease 


HEREDITARY  PREDISPOSITION  TO  DISEASE.    213 

that  hereditary  predisposition  is  to  be  dreaded.  The 
obstacles  which  it  throws  in  the  way  of  permanent 
recovery  are  even  more  formidable,  and  can  never 
be  entirely  removed.  Safety  is  to  be  found  only  in 
avoiding  the  perpetuation  of  the  mischief;  and, 
therefore,  if  two  persons,  each  naturally  of  an  ex- 
citable and  delicate  nervous  temperament,  choose 
to  unite  for  life,  they  have  themselves  to  blame  for 
the  concentrated  influence  of  similar  tendencies  ia 
destroying  the  health  of  their  offspring,  and  subject- 
ing them  to  all  the  miseries  of  nervous  disease, 
madness,  or  melancholy. 

Even  where  no  hereditary  defect  exists,  continued 
excitement  of  the  nervous  functions  in  the  mother, 
from  anxiety,  grief,  or  other  causes,  during  preg- 
nancy, has  often  a  striking  effect  on  the  future  men- 
tal health  and  constitution  of  the  offspring.  Many 
authors  testify  to  the  truth  of  this  fact,  which  has 
not  escaped  the  penetration  of  some  mothers.  The 
Margravine  of  Anspach  observes  justly,  that  "  when 
a  female  is  likely  to  become  a  mother,  she  ought  t<? 
be  doubly  careful  of  her  temper ;  and,  in  particular, 
to  indulge  no  ideas  that  are  not  cheerful,  and  no 
sentiments  that  are  not  kind.  Such  is  the  con- 
nexion between  the  mind  and  body,  that  the  features 
of  the  face  are  moulded  commonly  into  an  expres- 
sion of  the  internal  disposition ;  and  is  it  not  natural 
to  think  that  an  infant,  before  it  is  born,  may  be 
affected  by  the  temper  of  its  mother?" — Memoirs, 
vol.  ii.  chap.  viiL 

The  second  condition  required  for  the  health  of 
the  brain  is  a  due  supply  of  properly  oxygenated 
blood.  The  effects  of  slight  differences  in  the 
quality  of  the  blood  are  not  easily  recognised,  but 
when  extreme  they  are  too  obvious  to  be  over- 
looked. If  the  stimulus  of  arterial  blood  be  alto- 
gether withdrawn,  the  brain  ceases  to  act,  and  sensi- 
bility and  consciousness  become  extinct.  Thus, 
when  fixed  air  is  inhaled,  the  blood  circulating 


214      INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BLOOD  ON  THE  BRAIN. 

through  the  lungs  does  not  undergo  that  process  of 
oxygenation  which  is  essential  to  life ;  and  as  it  is 
in  this  state  unfit  to  excite  or  support  the  action  of 
the  brain,  the  mental  functions  become  impaired, 
and  death  speedily  closes  the  scene.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  blood  be  too  highly  oxygenated,  as 
by  breathing  oxygen  gas  instead  of  common  air,  the 
brain  is  too  much  stimulated,  and  an  intensity  of  ac- 
tion, bordering  on  inflammation,  takes  place,  which 
also  soon  terminates  in  death. 

Such  are  the  consequences  of  the  two  extremes  ; 
but  the  slighter  variations  in  the  state  of  the  blood 
have  equally  sure,  although  less  palpable,  effects. 
If  its  vitality  be  impaired  by  breathing  an  atmo- 
sphere so  much  vitiated  as  to  be  insufficient  to  pro- 
duce the  proper  degree  of  oxygenation,  the  blood 
then  affords  an  imperfect  stimulus  to  the  brain  ;  and 
as  a  necessary  consequence,  languor  and  inactivity 
of  the  mental  and  nervous  functions  ensue,  and  a 
tendency  to  headache,  syncope,  or  hysteria  makes 
its  appearance.  This  is  seen  every  day  in  the  list- 
lessness  and  apathy  prevalent  in  crowded  and  ill- 
ventilated  schools ;  and  in  the  headaches  and  liability 
to  fainting  which  are  so  sure  to  attack  persons  of  a 
delicate  habit  in  the  contaminated  atmosphere  of 
crowded  theatres,  churches,  and  assemblies.  It  is 
seen  less  strikingly,  but  more  permanently,  in  the 
irritable  and  sensitive  condition  of  the  inmates  of 
cotton-manufactories  and  public  hospitals.  In  these 
instances,  the  operation  of  the  principle  cannot  be 
disputed,  for  the  languor  and  nervous  debility  con- 
sequent on  confinement  in  ill-ventilated  apartments, 
or  in  air  vitiated  by  the  breath  of  many  people,  are 
neither  more  nor  less  than  minor  degrees  of  the 
same  process  of  poisoning  to  which  I  have  formerly 
alluded.  It  is  not  real  debility  which  produces 
them;  for  egress  to  the  open  air  almost  instantly 
restores  activity  and  vigour  to  both  mind  and  body, 
unless  the  exposure  has  been  very  long,  in  which 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BLOOD  ON  THE  BRAIN.  215 

case  more  time  is  required  to  re-establish  the  ex- 
hausted powers  of  the  brain.  A  good  deal  of  ob- 
servation has  convinced  me,  that -the  transmission 
of  imperfectly  oxygenated  blood  to  the  brain  is 
greatly  more  influential  in  the  production  of  nervous 
disease  and  delicacy  of  constitution  than  is  com- 
monly imagined ;  and  I  am  delighted  to  see  the  same 
truth  so  powerfully  insisted  on  by  Mr.  Thackrah 
from  extensive  experience  in  the  manufacturing  dis- 
trict about  Leeds.  Having,  however,  dwelt  on  this 
subject  in  the  preceding  chapter,  1  need  not  repeat 
the  observations  already  made.* 

Although,  in  delicate  constitutions,  the  health  of 
the  brain  and  nervous  system  is  often  impaired  by 
inadequate  nutrition,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  nour- 
ishing food  is  therefore  indispensable  to  their  well- 
being,  yet,  as  this  condition  is  implied  in  the  pre- 
ceding, and  its  separate  consideration  would  lead 
us  too  far  from  our  main  object,  I  shall  not  dwell 
upon  it  here.  I  shall  merely  state,  that  starvation 
often  affects  the  brain  so  much  as  to  produce  fero- 
cious delirium,  and  that,  in  the  Milanese,  a  species 
of  insanity  arising  from  defective  nourishment  is 
very  prevalent,  and  is  easily  cured  by  the  nourishing 
diet  provided  in  the  hospitals  to  which  the  patients 
are  sent.  I  have,  seen  the  mental  functions  weak- 
ened, and  the  brain  disordered,  by  the  same  cause — 
inadequate  nutrition — at  the  period  of  rapid  growth. 
This  defective  nutrition,  however,  it  must  be  ob- 
served, does  not  always  depend  on  want  of  proper 

*  An  intelligent  teacher  in  Edinburgh,  to  whom  I  coramuni 
cated  the  above  views,  and  who  immediately  set  about  acting 
On  them  by  turning  his  pupils  out  to  play,  and.throwing  open  the 
door  and  windows  for  ten  minutes  at  the  end  of  the  first  hour's 
confinement,  assures  me  that  the  difference  between  the  languor 
and  little  power  of  sustained  attention  exhibited  under  the  old 
system,  and  the  activity  shown  under  the  new,  is  very  marked, 
and  that  the  interval  of  relaxation  is  most  profitably  spent  time 
both  to  his  pupils  and  himself,  as  they  return  to  work  with 
tew  life. 


INFLUENCE    OF    EXERCISE    ON    THE    BRAIW 

food.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  often  the  result,  among 
the  higher  classes,  of  too  much  or  too  stimulating 
food  over-exciting  and  ultimately  impairing  the  di- 
gestive powers.  The  proneness  to  morbid  excite- 
ment in  the  brain,  induced  by  insufficient  food,  is 
one  cause  why,  in  times  of  public  distress,  the 
lower  orders  are  so  apt  to  resort  to  violence  to  re- 
move the  sources  of  their  discontent. 

The  THIRD  condition  of  health  in  the  brain  and 
nervous  system,  and  that  to  which  it  is  the  chief 
object  of  these  pages  to  direct  attention,  is  the 
regular  exercise  of  their  respective  functions,  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  already  so  frequently  referred 
to,  and  so  fully  explained  in  one  of  the  preceding 
chapters.* 

The  brain,  being  an  organized  part,  is  subject,  in  so 
far  as  regards  its  exercise,  to  precisely  the  same  laws 
as  the  other  organs  of  the  body.  If  it  be  doomed  to 
inactivity,  its  functions  languish,  and  its  health  de- 
cays. If  it  be  duly  exercised,  after  regular  inter- 
vals of  repose,  its  functions  acquire  readiness  and 
strength ;  and,  lastly,  if  it  be  over-tasked,  either  in 
the  force  or  duration  of  its  activity,  its  functions 
become  impaired,  and  irritability  and  disease  take  the 
place  of  health  and  vigour. 

The  consequences  of  inadequate  exercise  may  be 
first  explained. 

We  have  seen  that,  by  disuse,  muscle  becomes 
emaciated,  bone  softens,  blood-vessels  are  obliter- 
ated, and  nerves  lose  their  characteristic  structure. 
The  brain  is  no  exception  to  this  general  rule.  Of 
it  also  the  tone  is  impaired  by  permanent  inactivity, 
and  it  becomes  less  fit  to  manifest  the  mental  powers 
with  readiness  and  energy.  Nor  will  this  surprise 
any  reflecting  person,  who  considers  that  the  brain, 
as  a  part  of  the  same  animal  system,  is  nourished 
by  the  same  blood,  and  regulated  by  the  same  vital 
laws,  as  the  muscles,  bones,  and  nerves. 

*  See  Chapter  IV.,  and  also  p.  Ifr. 


INFLUENCE    OF    EXERCISE    ON    THE    BRAIN.    217 

It  is  the  weakening  and  depressing  effect  upon  the 
brain  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  stimulus  necessary 
for  its  healthy  exercise,  which  renders  solitary  con- 
finement so  "severe  a  punishment  even  to  the  most 
daring  minds.  It  is  a  lower  degree  of  the  same 
cause  which  renders  continuous  seclusion  from 
society  so  injurious  to  both  mental  and  bodily  health, 
and  which  often  renders  the  situation  of  govern- 
esses one  of  *misery  and  bad  health,  even  where 
every  kindness  is  meant  to  be  shown  towards  them. 
In  many  families,  especially  in  the  higher  ranks, 
the  governess  lives  so  secluded  that  she  is  as  much 
out  of  society  as  if  she  were  placed  in  solitary  con- 
finement. She  is  too  much  above  the  domestics  to 
make  companions  of  them,  and  too  much  below  her 
employers  to  be  treated  by  them  either  with  confi- 
dence or  as  an  equal.  With  feelings  as  acute,  in- 
terests as  dear  to  her,  and  a  judgment  as  sound  as 
those  of  any  of  the  persons  who  scarcely  notice 
her  existence,  she  is  denied  every  opportunity  of 
gratifying  the  first  or  expressing  the  last,  merely 
because  she  "is  only  the  governess;"  as  if  govern- 
esses were  not  made  of  the  same  flesh  and  blood, 
and  sent  into  the  world  by  the  same  Creator,  as 
their  more  fortunate  employers.  It  is,  I  believe, 
beyond  question,  that  much  unhappiness,  and  not 
unfrequently  madness  itself,  are  unintentionally 
caused  by  this  cold  and  inconsiderate  treatment. 
For  the  same  reason,  those  who  are  cut  off  from 
social  converse  by  any  bodily  infirmity  often  be- 
come discontented  and  morose  in  spite  of  every 
resolution  to  the  contrary.  The  feelings  and  facul- 
ties of  the  mind,  which  had  formerly  full  play  in 
their  intercourse  with  their  fellow-creatures,  have 
no  longer  scope  for  sufficient  exercise,  and  the 
almost  inevitable  result  is  irritability  and  weakness 
in  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  brain. 

This  fact  is  particularly  observed  among  the 
deaf  and  blind,  in  whom,  from  their  being  cut  off 
T 


218         INSUFFICIENT    CERF.BRAL    EXERCISE. 

from  a  full  participation  in  the  same  sources  of  in, 
terest  as  their  more  favoured  brethren,  irritability, 
weakness  of  mind,  and  idiocy  are  known  to  be 
much  more  prevalent  than  among  other  classes 
of  people.  In  the  Dictionnaire  de  Medecine  (vol.  xx. 
p.  87),  Andral  gives  a  description  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  every  word  of  which  bears  a  direct  reference 
to  the  above  principle  ;  and  a  nearly  similar  account 
has  been  lately  given  of  the  blind  by  an  equally  in- 
telligent observer.  "The  deaf  and  dumb,"  says 
Andral,  "  presents,  in  his  intelligence,  character, 
and  the  development  of  his  passions,  certain  modifi- 
cations which  depend  on  his  state  of  isolation  in 
the  midst  of  society.  He  remains  habitually  in  a 
state  of  half-childishness,  is  very  credulous,  but, 
like  the  savage,  remains  free  from  many  of  the 
prejudices  acquired  in  society.  In  him  the  tender 
feelings  are  not  deep ;  he  appears  susceptible  neither 
of  strong  attachment  nor  of  lively  gratitude ;  pity 
moves  him  feebly ;  he  has  little  emulation,  few  en- 
joyments, and  few  desires.  This  is  what  is  com- 
monly observed  in  the  deaf  and  dumb,  but  the 
picture  is  far  from  being  of  universal  application ; 
some,  more  happily  endowed,  are  remarkable  for 
the  great  development  of  their  intellectual  and 
moral  nature,  but  others,  on  the  contrary,  remain 
immersed  in  complete  idiocy."  Andral  adds,  that 
we  must  not  infer  from  this  that  the  deaf  and  dumb 
are  therefore  constitutionally  inferior  in  mind  to 
other  men.  "  Their  powers  are  not  developed^  because 
they  live  isolated  from  society :  place  them,  by  some 
means  or  other,  in  relation  with  their  fellow-men,  and 
they  will  become  their  equals.11  This  is  the  cause 
of  the  rapid  brightening  up  of  both  mind  and  fea- 
tures, which  is  so  often  observed  in  blind  or  deaf 
children,  when  transferred  from  home  to  public  in- 
stitutions, and  there  taught  the  means  of  converse 
with  their  fellows.  In  these  instructive  instances, 
the  whole  change  is  from  a  state  of  inactivity 


INSUFFICIENT  CEREBRAL  EXERCISE.       219 

of  the  mind  and  brain  to  that  of  their  wholesome 
and  regular  exercise. 

Keeping  the  above  principle  in  view,  we  shall  not 
be  surprised  to  find,  that  non-exercise  of  the  brain 
and  nervous  system,  or,  in  other  words,  inactivit5 
of  intellect  and  of  feeling,  is  a  very  frequent  pre- 
disposing cause  of  every  form  of  nervous  disease. 
For  demonstrative  evidence  of  this  position,  we 
have  only  to  look  at  the  numerous  victims  to  be 
found  among  females  of  the  middle  and  higher  ranks, 
who  have  no  call  to  exertion  in  gaining  the  means 
of  subsistence,  and  no  objects  of  interest  on  which 
to  exeicise  their  mental  faculties,  and  who  conse- 
quently sink  into  a  state  of  mental  sloth  and  nervous 
weakness,  which  not  only  deprives  them  of  much 
enjoyment,  but  lays  them  open  to  suffering,  both 
of  mind  and  body,  from  the  slightest  causes. 

If  we  look  abroad  upon  society,  we  shall  find  in- 
numerable examples  of  mental  and  nervous  debility 
from  this  cause.  When  $  person  of  some  mental 
capacity  is  confined  for  a  long  time  to  an  unvarying 
round  of  employment,  which  affords  neither  scope 
nor  stimulus  for  one-half  of  his  faculties,  and  from 
want  of  education  or  society  has  no  external  re- 
sources, his  mental  powers,  for  want  of  exercise 
to  keep  up  due  vitality  in  their  cerebral  organs,  be- 
come blunted,  and  his  perceptions  slow  and  dull, 
and  he  feels  any  unusual  subjects  of  thought  as  dis- 
agreeable and  painful  intrusions.  The  intellect  and 
feelings,  not  being  provided  with  interests  external 
to  themselves,  must  either  become  inactive  and 
weak,  or  work  upon  themselves,  and  become  dis- 
eased. In  the  former  case,  the  mind  becomes  apa- 
thetic, and  possesses  no  ground  of  sympathy  with 
its  fellow- creatures;  in  the  latter,  it  becomes  un- 
duly sensitive,  and  shrinks  within  itself  and  its 
own  limited  circle,  as  its  only  protection  against 
every  trifling  occurrence  or  mode  of  action  which 
has  not  relation  to  itself,  A  desire  to  continue  an 


220  INSUFFICIENT    CEREBRAL    EXERCISE. 

unvaried  round  of  life  takes  strong  possession  of 
the  mind ;  because  to  come  forth  into  society  re- 
quires an  exertion  of  faculties  which  have  been  long 
dormant,  and  cannot  be  awakened  without  pain, 
and  which  are  felt  to  be  feeble  when  called  into 
action.  In  such  a  state,  home  and  its  immediate 
interests  become  not  only  the  centre  which  they 
ought  to  be,  but  also  the  boundary  of  life ;  and  the 
mind  originally  constituted  to  embrace  a  much 
wider  sphere  is  thus  shorn  of  its  powers,  and  the 
tone  of  mental  and  bodily  health  is  lowered,  till  a 
total  inaptitude  for  the  business  of  life  and  the  ordi- 
nary intercourse  of  society  comes  on,  and  often  in- 
creases till  it  becomes  a  positive  malady. 

But  let  the  situation  of  such  persons  be  changed ; 
bring  them,  for  instance,  from  the  listlessness  of  re- 
tirement to  the  business  and  bustle  of  a  town, — give 
them  a  variety  of  imperative  employments, — and 
place  them  in  society  so  as  to  supply  to  their  cere- 
bral organs  that  extent  of  exercise  which  gives  them 
health  and  vivacity  of  action, — and,  in  a  few  months, 
the  change  produced  will  be  surprising.  Health, 
animation,  and  acuteness  will  take  the  place  of 
former  insipidity  and  dulness.  In  such  instances  it 
would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  it  is  the  mind  itself 
which  becomes  heavy  and  feeble,  and  again  revives 
into  energy  by  these  changes  in  external  circum- 
stances :  the  effects  arise  entirely  from  changes  in 
the  state  of  the  brain;  and  the  mental  manifesta- 
tions and  the  bodily  health  have  been  improved 
solely  by  the  improvement  of  its  condition. 

Examples  of  this  kind  are  not  rare  among  retired 
officers,  annuitants,  merchants,  and  other  persons 
living  on  certain  incomes,  without  fixed  occupations 
to  interest  them  ;  and  a  curious  enough  instance  oc- 
curred lately  in  a  young  military  officer,  who  spent 
three  years  in  Canada,  commanding  a  small  detach- 
ment, in  a  remote  station,  where  he  was  completely 
separated  from  all  society  of  his  own  rank.  During 


INSUFFICIENT    CEREBRAL    EXERCISE.          221 

all  that  period  he  spent  his  time  in  sauntering,  shoot- 
ing, or  fishing,  without  that  excitement  to  his  vari- 
ous faculties  which  is  afforded  by  the  society  of 
equals.  The  consequence  of  this  compulsory  mental 
apathy,  and  the  corresponding  inactivity  of  brain, 
was,  that  on  returning  to  England  his  nervous  sys- 
tem had  become  so  weak  and  irritable,  that,  although 
by  nature  fond  of  society,  he  feared  to  meet  even 
with  the  members  of  his  own  family,  and  for  many 
weeks  would  never  venture  to  walk  out  to  take 
necessary  exercise,  except  in  the  dark.  And  it  was 
only  at  the  end  of  several  months  that  the  renewed 
stimulus  of  society  and  employment  restored  the 
tone  of  his  nervous  system  so  far  as  to  allow  him  to 
regain  his  natural  character  of  mind,  and  to  return 
to  his  usual  habits  of  life.  In  this  predisposed  state 
of  the  system,  a  very  slight  cause  would  obviously 
have  sufficed  to  convert  the  depression  into  absolute 
derangement. 

But,  as  mentioned  at  first,  the  most  frequent  vic- 
tims of  this  kind  of  predisposition  are  females  of  the 
middle  and  higher  ranks,  especially  those  of  a  ner- 
vous constitution  and  good  natural  abilities ;  but 
who,  from  ill-directed  education,  possess  nothing 
more  solid  than  mere  accomplishments,  and  have  no 
materials  of  thought  or  feeling,  and  no  regular  or 
imperative  occupations,  to  excite  interest  or  demand 
attention.  Such  persons  have  literally  nothing  on 
which  to  expend  half  the  nervous  energy  which  na- 
ture has  bestowed  on  them  for  better  purposes. 
They  have  nothing  to  excite  and  exercise  the  brain, 
— nothing  to  elicit  activity;  their  own  feelings  and 
personal  relations  necessarily  constitute  the  grand 
objects  of  their  contemplations  ;  these  are  brooded 
over  till  the  mental  energies  become  impaired,  false 
ideas  of  existence  and  of  Providence  spring  up  in 
the  mind,  the  fancy  is  haunted  by  strange  impres- 
sions, and  every  trifle  which  relates  to  self  is  exag- 
gerated into  an  object  of  immense  importance.  The 

Ti 


222           INSUFFICIENT    CEREBRAL    EXERCISE. 

brain,  having  almost  no  employment,  becomes  weak, 
and  the  mental  manifestations  are  enfeebled  in  pro- 
portion ;  so  that  a  person  of  good  endowments,  thus 
treated,  will  often  not  only  exhibit  somewhat  of  the 
imbecility  of  a  fool,  but  gradually  become  irritable, 
peevish,  and  discontented,  and  open  to  the  attack  of 
every  form  of  nervous  disease  and  of  derangement 
from  causes  which,  under  different  circumstances, 
would  never  have  disturbed  her  for  a  moment. 

That  the  liability  of  such  persons  to  melancholy, 
hysteria,  hypochondriasis,  and  other  varieties  of 
mental  disease,  really  depends  on  a  state  of  irrita- 
bility of  brain,  induced  by  imperfect  exercise,  is 
proved  by  the  vast  and  rapid  improvement  we  often 
witness  from  the  sudden  supervention  of  occur- 
rences which  excite  and  employ  the  mental  powers 
and  their  cerebral  organs.  Nothing  is  more  usual 
than  to  see  a  nervous  young  lady,  who  for  years  had 
been  unfit  for  any  thing,  while  ease  and  indolence 
were  her  portion,  deriving  the  utmost  advantage 
from  apparent  misfortunes,  which  throw  her  upon 
her  own  resources,  and  force  her  to  exert  her  ut- 
most energies  to  maintain  a  respectable  station  in 
society.  Where,  as  in  such  circumstances,  the 
mental  faculties  and  brain,  the  intellect  and  moral 
and  social  feelings,  are  blessed  with  a  stimulus  to 
act, — the  weakness,  the  tremors,  and  the  apprehen- 
sions, which  formerly  seemed  an  inborn  part  of  her- 
self, disappear  as  if  by  enchantment,  and  strength, 
vigour,  and  happiness  take  their  place ;  solely  be- 
cause now  God's  law  is  fulfilled,  and  the  brain  with 
which  He  has  connected  the  mind  is  supplied  with 
that  healthful  stimulus  and  exercise  which  He  or- 
dained to  be  indispensable  to  its  healthy  existence. 

An  additional  illustration,  and  I  venture  upon  it 
because  the  principle  is  an  important  one  in  the  pro- 
duction of  many  distressing  forms  of  disease,  will  be 
found  in  the  case  of  a  man  of  mature  age  and  of 
active  habits,  who  has  devoted  his  life  to  the  toila 


INSUFFICIENT    CEREBRAL    EXERCISE.          223 

of  business,  and  whose  hours  of  enjoyment  have 
been  few  and  short.  Suppose  such  a  person  to  re- 
tire to  the  country  in  search  of  repose,  and  to  have 
no  deep  moral,  religious,  or  philosophical  pursuits  to 
occupy  his  attention,  and  keep  up  the  active  exer- 
cise of  his  brain, — the  latter  will  lose  its  health,  and 
the  invariable  result  will  be  ennui,  weariness  of  life, 
despondency,  or  some  other  variety  of  nervous  dis- 
ease.* 

One  great  evil  attending  the  absence  of  some  im- 
perative employment  or  object  of  interest  to  exer- 
cise the  mind  and  brain,  is  the  tendency  which  it 
generates  to  waste  the  mental  energies  on  every 
trifling  occurrence  which  presents  itself,  and  to  seek 
relief  in  the  momentary  excitement  of  any  sensa- 
tion, however  unworthy.  Not  only  does  painful 
instability  of  purpose  and  interest  arise  from  this 
cause,  especially  among  females,  but,  by  degrees, 
enjoyment  is  sought  for  more  from  the  indulgence 
of  the  sensual  appetites  of  eating  and  drinking  than 
from  any  higher  occupation ;  till,  at  last,  the  habit 
is  established,  and  quantities  of  food  and  wine  are 
daily  swallowed,  which  add  disease  to  indolence, 
and  oppress  both  mind  and  body.  Patients  labour- 
ing under  this  forni  of  indisposition  complain  much 
of  debility,  and  of  the  exhaustion  left  by  every  exer- 
tion. It  is  common  to  hear  them  defending  the  ex- 
cesses which  they  commit,  by  affirming  that  with 
less  support  they  would  die  of  weakness ;  but  the 
plea,  though  plausible,  is  not  less  groundless  than 
injurious.  No  doubt,  they  may  feel  stronger  after 
a  good  dinner  and  a  few  glasses  of  wine,  but  the 
strength  is  that  of  feverish  excitement,  and  the  sub- 
sequent languor  is  proportionally  great.  Ere  long, 

*  It  may  be  proper  to  state,  that  several  of  the  preceding  pages 
have  been  taken,  with  little  alteration,  from  my  "  Observations 
on  Mental  Derangement,"  published  some  time  ago.  But  as  that 
work  is  designed  for  the  profession,  and  not  for  the  general 
reader,  I  have  thought  it  necessary  to  repeat  them  here. 


224         EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

too, the  power  of  mental  application  gives  way;  the 
digestive  organs  fail  under  the  task  imposed  upon 
them ;  and  headache,  flushing,  sickness,  and  hilious 
attacks  ensue  in  such  rapid  succession,  that  life  at 
last  becomes  a  state  of  habitual  indisposition. 

The  best  remedy  for  these  evils  is  to  create  occu- 
pation to  interest  the  mind,  and  give  that  wholesome 
exercise  to  the  brain  which  its  constitution  requires. 
Unless  this  can  be  done,  the  services  of  the  phy- 
sician will  be  available  only  so  long  as  their  novelty 
continues  a  source  of  excitement ;  and  then,  in  all 
probability,  he  will  be  discharged  to  make  way  for 
another,  who  will,  in  his  turn,  be  dismissed  to  give 
place  to  a  third.  The  principle  on  which  this  is 
done  is  perfectly  sound,  and,  in  such  cases,  no  sen- 
sible physician  will  take  it  amiss  that  his  assistance 
is  declined.  The  error  lies  in  the  patient  seeking 
the  necessary  mental  stimulus  in  a  change  of  at- 
tendant, instead  of  in  a  change  of  occupation.  But 
there  cannot  be  a  doubt,  that  where  the  patient  is 
either  unable  or  unwilling  to  seek  recovery  from 
engaging  in  proper  employment,  the  mere  change 
of  physician  is  often  of  temporary  service. 

The  evils  arising  from  EXCESSIVE  or  ill-timed  exer- 
cise of  the  brain  or  any  of  its  parts,  are  numerous 
and  equally  in  accordance  with  the  ordinary  laws 
of  physiology.  When  we  use  the  eye  too  long,  or 
in  too  bright  a  light,  it  becomes  bloodshot,  and  the 
increased  action  of  its  vessels  and  nerves  gives  rise 
to  a  sensation  of  fatigue  and  pain  requiring  us  to 
desist.  If  we  turn  away  the  eye,  the  irritation 
gradually  subsides,  and  the  healthy  state  returns ; 
but  if  we  continue  to  look  intently,  or  resume  our 
employment  before  the  eye  has  regained  its  natural 
state  by  repose,  the  irritation  at  last  becomes  perma- 
nent, and  disease,  followed  by  weakness  of  sight  or 
even  blindness,  may  ensue  ;  as  often  happens  to 


EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF   THE   BRAIN.       225 

glass-blowers,  smiths,  and  others,  who  are  obliged 
to  work  in  an  intense  light. 

Precisely  analogous  phenomena  occur  when,  from 
intense  mental  excitement,  the  brain  is  kept  long  in 
a  state  of  excessive  activity.  The  only  difference 
is,  that  we  can  always  see  what  happens  in  the  eye, 
but  rarely  what  takes  place  in  the  brain.  Occasion- 
ally, however,  cases  of  fracture  of  the  scull  occur, 
in  which,  from  part  of  the  bone  being  removed,  we 
can  see  the  quickened  circulation  in  the  vessels  of 
the  brain  as  easily  as  in  those  of  the  eye.  Sir  Ast- 
ley  Cooper  had  a  young  gentleman  brought  to  him 
who  had  lost  a  portion  of  his  scull  just  above  the 
eyebrow.  "  On  examining  the  head,"  says  Sir  Ast- 
ley,  "  I  distinctly  saw  the  pulsation  of  the  brain  was 
regular  and  slow ;  but  at  this  time  he  was  agitated 
by  some  opposition  to  his  wishes,  and  directly  the 
blood  was  sent  with  increased  force  to  the  brain,  the  pul- 
sation became  frequent  and  violent;  if,  therefore,"  con- 
tinues Sir  Astley,  "you  omit  to  keep  the  mind  free 
from  agitation,  your  other  means  will  be  unavailing"  in 
the  treatment  of  injuries  of  the  brain.*  We  are  con- 
scious, indeed,  of  a  flow  of  blood  to  the  head  when 
we  think  intently,  or  are  roused  by  passion ;  and  the 
distension  of  the  small  vessels  of  the  brain  is  not  the 
less  real  or  influential  on  account  of  its  being  hidden 
from  our  view.  Too  often  it  reveals  itself  by  its 
effects  when  least  expected,  and  leaves  traces  after 
death  which  are  but  too  legible.  How  many  public 
men,  like  Whitbread,  Romilly,  Castlereagh,  and 
Canning,  urged  on  by  ambition  or  natural  eagerness 
of  mind,  have  been  suddenly  arrested  in  their  career 
by  the  inordinate  action  of  the  brain  induced  by  in- 
cessant toil!  And  how  many  more  have  had  their 
mental  power  for  ever  impaired  by  similar  excess! 
When  tasked  beyond  its  strength,  the  eye  becomes 

*  See  Sir  A.  Cooper's  Lecture  on  Surgery,  by  Tyrrel,  vol  i, 
p.  279. 


226        EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

insensible  to  light,  and  no  longer  conveys  any  im- 
pressions to  the  mind.  In  like  manner,  the  brain, 
when  much  exhausted,  becomes  incapable  of  thought, 
and  consciousness  is  almost  lost  in  a  feeling  of  utter 
confusion. 

At  any  time  of  life,  excessive  and  continued 
mental  exertion  is  hurtful ;  but  in  infancy  and  early 
youth,  when  the  structure  of  the  brain  is  still  imma- 
ture and  delicate,  permanent  mischief  is  more  easily 
inflicted  by  injudicious  treatment  than  at  any  subse- 
quent period ;  and,  in  this  respect,  the  analogy  is 
complete  between  the  brain  and  the  other  parts  of 
the  body,  as  we  have  already  seen  exemplified  in 
the  injurious  effects  of  premature  exercise  of  the 
bones  and  muscles.  Scrofulous  and  rickety  children 
are  the  most  usual  sufferers  in  this  way.  They  are 
generally  remarkable  for  large  heads,  great  precocity 
of  understanding,  and  small  delicate  bodies.  But, 
in  such  instances,  the  great  size  of  the  brain  and  the 
acuteness  of  mind  are  the  results  of  morbid  growth ; 
and,  even  with  the  best  management,  the  child  passes 
the  first  years  of  its  life  constantly  on  the  brink  of 
active  disease.  Instead,  however,  of  trying  to  re- 
press its  activity,  the  fond  parents,  misled  by  the 
early  promise  of  genius,  too  often  excite  it  still 
farther,  by  unceasing  cultivation  and  the  never-fail- 
ing stimulus  of  praise  and  emulation ;  and,  finding  its 
progress  for  a  time  equal  to  their  warmest  wishes, 
they  look  forward  with  ecstasy  to  the  day  when  its 
talents  will  break  forth,  and  shed  a  lustre  on  its 
name.  But,  in  exact  proportion  as  the  picture  be- 
comes brighter  to  their  fancy,  the  probability  of  its 
being  realized  becomes  less ;  as  the  brain,  worn  out 
by  premature  exertion,  either  becomes  diseased  or 
loses  its  tone,  leaving  the  mental  powers  slow  and 
depressed  for  the  remainder  of  life.  The  expected 
prodigy  is  thus  ultimately  and  easily  outstripped  in 
the  social  race  by  many  whose  apparently  dull  out- 
let promised  him  an  easy  victory. 


EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN.        227 

Taking  for  our  guide  the  necessities  of  the  consti  • 
tution,  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  modes  of  treatment 
commonly  resorted  to  ought  to  be  reversed,  and 
that,  instead  of  straining  to  the  uttermost  the  already 
irritable  powers  of  the  precocious  child,  and  leaving 
his  dull  competitor  to  ripen  at  leisure,  a  systematic 
attempt  ought  to  be  made,  from  early  infancy,  to 
rouse  to  action  the  languid  faculties  of  the  latter; 
while  no  pains  ought  to  be  spared  to  moderate  and 
give  tone  to  the  activity  of  the  former.  Instead  of 
this,  however,  the  prematurely  intelligent  child  is 
generally  sent  to  school,  and  tasked  with  lessons  at 
an  unusually  early  age  ;  while  the  healthy  but  more 
backward  boy,  who  requires  to  be  stimulated,  is 
kept  at  home  in  idleness,  perhaps  for  two  or  three 
years  longer,  merely  on  account  of  his  backward- 
ness. A  double  error  is  here  committed,  and  the 
consequence  to  the  clever  boy  is  frequently  the  per- 
manent loss  both  of  health  aiid  of  his  envied  supe- 
riority of  intellect. 

In  youth,  too,  much  mischief  is  done  by  the  long 
school-hours,  and  continued  application  of  mind, 
which  the  present  system  of  education  requires. 
The  law  of  exercise,  that  long-sustained  action  ex- 
hausts the  vital  powers  of  an  organ,  applies  equally 
to  the  brain  as  to  the  muscles;  and  hence  the  neces- 
sity of  varying  the  occupations  of  the  young,  and 
allowing  frequent  intervals  of  active  exercise  in  the 
open  air,  instead  of  enforcing  the  continued  confine- 
ment now  so  common.  This  exclusive  attention  to 
mental  culture  fails,  as  might  be  expected,  even  in 
its  essential  object;  for  experience  shows  that,  with 
a  rational  distribution  of  employment  and  exercise, 
a  child  will  make  greater  progress  than  in  double 
the  time  employed  in  continuous  mental  exertion. 
If  the  human  being  were  made  up  of  nothing  but  a 
brain  and  nervous  system,  it  would  be  very  well  to 
content  ourselves  with  sedentary  pursuits,  and  to 
confine  education  entirely  to  the  mind.  But  when 


228        EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

observation  tells  us  that  we  have  numerous  other 
important  organs  of  motions,  sanguification,  diges- 
tion, circulation,  and  nutrition*,  all  demanding  exer- 
cise and  the  open  air  as  essential  both  to  their  own 
health  and  to  that  of  the  nervous  system,  it  is  worse 
than  folly  to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact,  and  to  act  as 
if  we  could,  by  denying  it,  alter  the  constitution  of 
nature,  and  thereby  escape  the  consequences  of  our 
misconduct. 

Reason  and  experience  being  thus  set  at  naught 
both  by  parents  and  teachers,  in  the  management 
of  the  young,  the  latter  naturally  grow  up  with  the 
notion  that  no  such  influences  as  the  laws  of  organi- 
zation exist,  and  that  they  may  follow  any  course 
of  life  which  inclination  leads  them  to  prefer,  with- 
out injury  to  health,  provided  they  avoid  what  is 
called  dissipation.  It  is  owing  to  this  ignorance, 
that  we  find  young  men  of  a  studious  or  literary 
habit  enter  heedlessly  upon  an  amount  of  mental 
exertion,  unalleviated  by  bodily  exercise  or  intervals 
of  repose,  which  is  quite  incompatible  with  the  con- 
tinued enjoyment  of  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body. 
Such,  however,  is  the  effect  of  the  total  neglect  of 
all  instruction  in  the  laws  of  the  organization  during 
early  education,  that  it  becomes  almost  impossible 
to  warn  an  ardent  student  against  the  dangers  to 
which  he  is  exposing  himself,  and  nothing  but  actual 
experience  will  convince  him  of  the  truth. 

In  the  first  number  of  the  "  American  Annals  of 
Education,"  the  reader  will  find  an  instructive  article 
on  the  necessity  of  combining  bodily  with  mental 
exercise.  "  For  twenty  years  and  more,"  says  the 
writer,  "the  unnatural  union  of  sedentary  with 
studious  habits,  contracted  by  the  monastic  system, 
has  been  killing  in  the  middle  age.  The  Register 
of  Education  shows,  in  one  year,  120  deaths.  Ex- 
amine into  the  particular  cases,  and  these  will  be  found 
the  undoubted  effects  of  sedentary  habits.  Look  at 
one  name  there.  He  had  valuable  gifts,  perfected 


EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN.       229 

by  two  years'  academic,  four  years'  collegiate,  and 
three  years'  theological  studies.  He  preached,  gave 
much  promise,  and  then  died  of  a  stomach  disease.  He 
contracted  it  when  a  student.  He  did  not  alternate 
bodily  with  mental  labour,  or  he  had  lived  and  been 
a  blessing  to  the  church.  When  he  entered  on  his 
studies,  he  was  growing  into  full  size  and  strength. 
He  sat  down  till  his  muscles  dwindled,  his  digestion 
became  disordered,  his  chest  contracted,  his  lungs  con- 
gested, and  his  head  liable  to  periodical  pains.  He  sat 
four  years  in  college,  and  three  years  in  theological 
application.  Look  at  him  nmv.  He  has  gained  much 
useful  knowledge,  and  has  improved  his  talents ;  he 
has  lost  his  health.  The  duties  of  his  mind  and 
heart  were  done,  and  faithfully  so ;  but  those  of  his 
body  were  left  undone.  Three  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  muscles,  organs  of  motion,  have  been  robbed  of  their 
appropriate  action  for  nine  or  ten  years,  and  now  they  have 
become,  alike  with  the  rest  of  his  frame,  the  prey  of  near 
one  hundred  and  fifty  diseased  and  irritable  nerves" 
• — "  Look  at  another  case.  Exposure  incident  to  the 
parson  or  missionary  has  developed  the  disease  in 
his  chest,  planted  there  while  fitting  himself  for 
usefulness.  He  contracted  a  sedentary,  while  he 
was  gaining  a  studious  habit.  That  which  he  sows, 
that  also  shall  he  reap.  The  east  winds  give  him 
colds  ;  a  pulpit  effort  causes  hoarseness  and  cough, 
oppression  and  pain.  He  becomes  alarmed  and 
nervous.  His  views  of  usefulness  begin  to  be 
limited.  He  must  now  go  by  direction,  and  not  so  much 
to  labour  where  otherwise  he  would  have  been  most 
wanted,  as  to  nurse  his  broken  constitution.  He  soon 
adds  to  the  number  of  mysterious  providences,  to  the 
number  of  innocent  victims,  rather,  of  cultivating 
the  mind  and  heart,  at  the  unnecessary  and  sinful 
expense  of  the  body, — to  the  number  of  loud  calls 
to  alternate  mental  and  corporeal  action  daily,  for 
the  reciprocal  sanity  and  vigour  of  both  mind  and 
body." 

U 


230         EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

To  remedy  these  evils,  and  introduce  a  better 
system  of  training,  so  as  to  make  bodily  health  and 
mental  and  rational  cultivation  go  hand  in  hand,  an 
establishment  called  the  Manual  Labour  Academy 
was   opened  near  Philadelphia  in   1829,   and   has 
already  proved  the  soundness  of  its  principles  by 
the  success  of  its  results.     The  usual  branches  of 
study  in  classical  schools,  with  the  addition  of  the 
Bible,  are  pursued;  and  "the  hours  of  recreation 
are  employed  in  useful  bodily  labour,  such  as  will 
exercise  their  skill,  make  them  dexterous,  establish 
their  health  and  strength,  enable  each  to  defray  his 
own    expenses,   and    fit   him    for  the   vicissitudes 
of  life."      From   this  systematic    union  of  bodily 
labour  in  gardening,  farming,  carpentry,  and  other 
work,  with    the    usual    academic    studies,    many 
comforts  are  said  to  have  arisen.     The  health  of 
the   inmates   has  been  uninterrupted,  except  in  a 
few  who  were    ill  when   received ;    and,  at    the 
date  of  the  report,  in  1830,  "every  invalid  remaining 
there  had  been  restored  to  health"     Young  men  thus 
trained  to  practical  obedience  to  the  organic  laws 
are  much  less  likely  to  run  into  excess  in  after-life, 
than  those  who  have  been  left  in  ignorance  of  the 
constitution  of  their  own  bodies.    "  When  thought  shall 
need  no  brain"    the  report  continues,  "  and  nearly 
four  hundred  organs  of  motion  shall  cease  to  constitute 
the  principal  portion  of  the  human  body,  then  may  the 
student  dispense  with  muscular  exertion  ;"  but,  till  then, 
let  him  beware  what  he  does,  arid  look  to  the  laws 
which  the  Creator  has  established  for  his  guidance, 
and  seek  his  happiness,  not  in  denying  their  exist- 
ence, but  in  yielding  them  willing  and  cheerful  obe- 
dience. 

In  early  and  middle  life,  fever,  with  an  unusual 
degree  of  cerebral  disorder,  is  a  common  conse- 
quence of  the  excessive  and  continued  excitement 
of  the  brain,  which  is  brought  on  by  severe  study, 
unremitting  mental  exertion,  anxiety,  and  watching. 


EXCESSIVE   EXERCISE    OF   THE   BRAIN.        231 

Some  very  marked  cases  of  this  kind  have  come 
tinder   my  observation,  but  that  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  is  so  strikingly  illustrative  of  the  dangers  al- 
luded to,  that  1  cannot  do  better  than  lay  it  before 
the  reader.    In  November,  1807,  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
was  seized  with  very  severe  fever,  in  consequence 
of  the  excitement  and  fatigue  which  he  underwent 
when  engaged  in  his  splendid  discovery  of  the  alka- 
line metals.    "  The  laboratory  of  the  institution  was 
crowded  with  persons  of  every  rank  and  description ; 
and  Davy,  as  may  be  readily  supposed,  was  kept  in 
a  continued  state  of  excitement  throughout  the  day. 
This  circumstance,  co-operating  with  the  effects  of 
the  fatigue  he  had  previously  undergone,  produced 
a  most  severe  fit  of  illness,  which,  for  a  time,  caused 
an  awful  pause  in  his  researches,  broke  the  thread 
of  his  pursuits,  and  turned  his  reflections  into  dif- 
ferent channels."     Davy  ascribed  his  illness  to  con- 
tagion caught  in  experimenting  on  the  fumigation 
of  hospitals.    "  Upon  conversing,  however,  with  Dr. 
Babington,  who,  with  Dr.  Frank,   attended   Davy 
throughout  this  illness,  he  assured  me  that  there 
was  not  the  slightest  ground  for  this  opinion,  and 
that  the  fever  was  evidently  the  effect  of  fatigue  and 
an  over-excited  brain.    The  reader  will  not  feel  much 
hesitation  in  believing  this  statement,  when  he  is 
made  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  Davy  at  this 
period.     His  intellectual  exertions  were  of  the  most  in- 
jurious kind,  and  yet,  unlike  the  philosophers  of  old, 
he  sought  not  to  fortify  himself  by  habits  of  tem- 
perance."    "  Such  was  his  great  celebrity  at  this 
period  of  his  career,  that  persons  of  the  highest  rank 
contended  for  the  honour  of  his  company  at  dinner, 
and  he  did  not  possess  sufficient  resolution  to  resist 
the  gratification  thus  afforded,  although  it  generally 
happened  that  his  pursuits  in  the  laboratory  were  no* 
suspended  until  the  appointed  dinner  hour  had  passed 
On  his  return  in  the  evening,  he  resumed  his  chymica. 
labours^  and  commonly  continued  them  till  three  or  four 


232        EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  yet  the  servants  of  the  estab- 
lishment not  un frequently  found  that  he  had  risen  before 
them"  Such  was  the  alarming  state  of  Davy,  that 
for  many  weeks  his  physicians  regularly  visited  him 
four  times  in  the  day;  and  the  housekeeper,  Mrs. 
Greenwood,  never  retired  to  bed,  except  one  night, 
during  eleven  weeks.  In  the  latter  part  of'his  illness, 
'  he  was  reduced  to  the  extreme  of  weakness,  and 
is  mind  participated  in  the  debility  of  his  body."* 

Instances  occasionally  occur  of  persons  exhausted 
by  anxiety  and  long  attendance  on  others,  being 
themselves  attacked  by  fever,  and  dying,  more  from 
the  unfavourable  state  to  which  previous  exhaustion 
had  reduced  them,  than  from  the  intensity  of  the 
fever  itself. 

Nervous  disease  from  excessive  mental  labour  and 
exaltation  of  feeling  sometimes  shows  itself  in  an- 
other form.  From  neglecting  proper  intervals  of 
rest,  the  vascular  excitement  of  the  brain,  which 
always  accompanies  activity  of  mind,  has  never  time 
to  subside,  and  a  restless  irritability  of  temper  and 
disposition  comes  on,  attended  with  sleeplessness 
and  anxiety,  for  which  no  external  cause  can  be 
•assigned.  The  symptoms  gradually  become  aggra- 
vated, the  digestive  functions  give  way,  nutrition  is 
impaired,  and  a  sense  of  wretchedness  is  constantly 
present,  which  often  leads  to  attempts  at  suicide. 
While  all  this  is  going  on,  however,  the  patient  will 
talk  or  transact  business  with  perfect  propriety  and 
accuracy,  arid  no  stranger  could  tell  that  any  thing 
ails  him.  But  in  his  intercourse  with  his  intimate 
friends  or  physician,  the  havoc  made  upon  the  mind 
becomes  apparent ;  and,  if  not  speedily  arrested,  it 
soon  terminates,  according  to  the  constitution  and 
circumstances  of  the  individual  case,  in  derange- 
ment, palsy,  apoplexy,  fever,  suicide,  or  permanent 
weakness. 

*  Paris's  Life  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  p.  183. 


'EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN.        233 

As  age  advances,  moderation  in  mental  exertion 
becomes  still  more  necessary  than  in  early  or  ma- 
ture years.  Scipion  Pinel,  in  adverting  to  the  evil 
consequences  of  excessive  moral  or  intellectual  ex- 
citement, acutely  remarks,  that  while  in  youth  and 
manhood  the  wear  of  the  brain  thus  induced  may  be 
repaired,  no  such  salutary  result  follows  over-exer- 
tion in  the  decline  of  life :  "  what  is  lost  then  is  lost 
for  ever.  At  that  period  we  must  learn  to  wait  for 
what  the  brain  is  willing  to  give,  and  allow  it  to 
work  at  its  own  time ;  to  attempt  to  force  it  is  to 
weaken  it  to  no  purpose ;  it  becomes  excited  and 
quickly  exhausted  when  forced  to  vigorous  think- 
ing."— "  Men  of  exalted  intellect  perish  by  their 
brains,  and  such  is  the  noble  end  of  those  whose 
genius  procures  for  them  that  immortality  which  so 
many  ardently  desire."* 

Who  can  peruse  these  lines  without  the  fate  of 
Scott  instantly  occurring  to  his  mind,  as  a  practical 
illustration  of  their  truth  1  In  the  vigour  of  man- 
hood few  ever  wrote  so  much,  or  with  greater  ease. 
But  when,  on  the  verge  of  old  age,  adversity  forced 
him  to  unparalleled  exertion,  the  organic  waste 
could  no  longer  be  repaired,  and  perseverance  only 
"  weakened  the  brain  to  no  purpose,"  till  morbid 
irritability  became  the  substitute  of  healthy  power, 
and  he  perished  by  that  brain  which  had  served  him 
so  faithfully  and  so  efficiently,  but  which  could  no 
longer  withstand  the  gigantic  efforts  which  he  con- 
tinued to  demand  from  it. 

Where  a  predisposition  to  insanity  exists,  the 
cerebral  excitement  induced  by  excessive  activity 
of  mind  often  leads  to  disease.  Examples  of  this 
kind  abound  in  the  works  of  authors.  Pinel  men- 
tions several.  One  of  them  was  the  case  of  a  young 
man,  distinguished  for  his  talents  and  his  profound 
knowledge  of  chymistry,  who  was  occupied  with  a 

*  Physiologic  de  I'Homme  Alien4,  p.  177* 
U  2 


234         EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

discovery  which  he  hoped  would  lead  him  to  for- 
tune and  distinction.  To  effect  it  the  sooner,  he 
resolved  to  shut  himself  up  in  his  laboratory  for 
several  successive  days ;  and,  the  better  to  banish 
sleep  and  to  raise  himself  to  the  level  of  his  la- 
bours, he  prepared  a  variety  of  stimulants.  A  sing-- 
ing girl  shared  his  retreat ;  he  drank  spirits,  smelled 
frequently  odoriferous  substances,  and  sprinkled  the 
room  with  eau  de  Cologne.  The  combined  action 
of  all  these  means,  added  to  the  heat  of  his  furnace, 
caused  such  a  degree  of  cerebral  excitement  that, 
at  the  end  of  eight  days,  the  most  furious  delirium 
took  place,  followed  by  a  regular  attack  of  mania 
If  any  thing  can  demonstrate  the  mutual  influence 
of  mind  and  brain,  it  is  surely  a  case  like  this, — a 
case  which  it  is  impossible  to  read  without  perceiv- 
ing how  easily  the  cerebral  affection  might  have 
been  of  the  violent  inflammatory  character,  which 
terminates,  in  a  few  days,  in  life  or  in  death;  or 
of  the  febrile  character,  that  lasts  for  one  or  two 
months,  and  leaves  the  mind  for  ever  reduced  in 
tone  and  vigour. 

It  is  well  remarked  by  Tissot,  that  the  disorders 
produced  by  the  efforts  of  the  mind  fall  soonest 
upon  such  as  are  incessantly  engaged  in  the  contem 
plation  of  the  same  object.  In  this  case,  he  adds, 
there  is  only  one  part  of  the  sensorium  (brain)  acted 
upon,  and  that  is  kept  always  on  the  stretch ;  it  is  not 
relieved  by  the  action  of  the  other  parts,  and  therefore 
is  sooner  fatigued  and  injured ;  the  same  rule  holding 
with  the  brain  as  with  the  muscles,  that  the  exer- 
cise which,  if  divided  among  the  different  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed,  will  strengthen  them,  will,  ii 
confined  to  a  few,  exhaust  and  impair  them.  Boer- 
haave  himself,  after  a  long  period  of  intense  think- 
ing, suffered  for  six  weeks  from  excitement  of  the 
brain,  bordering  on  madness,  and  characterized  by 
that  want  of  sleep,  irritability,  and  indifference  to 


EXCESSIVE    EXERCISE    OP    THE    BRAIN.         235 

ordinary  interests,  which  so  often  appear  as  the 
harbingers  of  insanity.    ••-•< 

The  number  of  literary  and  public  men,  students, 
and  persons  in  business,  who  do  themselves  irrepa- 
rable injury  in  this  way,  is  so  great,  that  few  of  my 
readers  who  have  had  experience  of  the  world  will 
be  at  a  loss  for  examples  even  among  their  own  ac- 
quaintances. In  addition  to  Davy,  Scott,  and  others, 
already  mentioned,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  may  be  re- 
ferred to  ;  as  it  is  now  certain  that  his  mind  was  for 
a  time  disordered  by  excessive  application,  and 
there  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  he  never  alto- 
gether recovered  the  shock.  The  premature  ex- 
tinction of  early  "  prodigies"  of  genius  is  also  gene- 
rally traceable  to  the  operation  of  the  same  cause. 
The  wonder  excited  by  their  performances  stimu- 
lates them  to  incessant  and  severe  exertion,  unre- 
lieved either  by  adequate  repose  or  by  variety  of 
pursuit ;  and  the  exhausted  brain  either  sinks  at  the 
period  of  growth,  or  becomes  so  much  weakened 
as  to  be  unfit  for  the  same  splendour  of  manifesta- 
tions. The  more  limited  the  sphere  of  talent,  the 
greater  the  danger  of  its  being  over- exercised  ;  and 
hence  the  frequency  of  nervous  affections  in  musi- 
cians, and  others  who  dedicate  their  lives  to  the 
exclusive  cultivation  of  their  arts.  It  is  said  that 
Gretry  not  only  ruined  his  own  health,  but  lost 
three  highly-gifted  and  beautiful  daughters  in  suc- 
cession, from  over-excitement  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem thus  induced  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  melancholy  fate  of  Weber  was  greatly  hastened 
by  intense  application.  He  continued  deeply  en- 
gaged in  musical  composition  long  after  his  health 
was  undermined;  and,  even  when  the  hand  of  death 
was  almost  upon  him,  his  avocations  pressed  so 
heavily  that  he  could  not  help  exclaiming,  "Would 
that  I  were  a  tailor,  for  then  I  should  have  a  Sunday's 
holyday  .'"  The  philanthropic  physician  will  rather 
06  inclined  to  exclaim,  "  Would  that  mankind  would 


236         RULES    FOR    THE    PROPER   EXERCISE 

study  their  bodily  structure  and  functions,  and  thus 
learn  to  preserve  longer  the  health  and  existence  of 
those  whose  genius  is  the  source  of  so  many  plea- 
sures to  the  world  at  large  !" 

Having  thus  pointed  out  the  evils  arising  both  from 
inadequate  and  from  excessive  mental  exertion,  it 
remains  for  me  to  direct  attention  to  some  of  the 
conditions  required  for  the  proper  exercise  of  the 
brain. 

It  seems  to  be  a  law  of  the  animal  economy,  that 
two  classes  of  functions  cannot  be  called  into  vigo- 
rous action  at  the  same  time,  without  one  or  other, 
or  both,  sooner  or  later  sustaining  injury.  Hence 
the  important  rule,  never  to  enter  upon  continued 
mental  exertion,  or  to  rouse  deep  feeling,  imme- 
diately after  a  full  meal,  as  the  activity  of  the  brain 
is  sure  to  interfere  with  that  of  the  stomach,  and 
disorder  its  functions.  Even  in  a  perfectly  healthy 
person,  unwelcome  news,  sudden  anxiety,  or  men- 
tal excitement,  occurring  after  eating,  will  put  an 
entire  stop  to  digestion,  and  cause  the  stomach  to 
loathe  at  the  sight  of  food.  In  accordance  with 
this,  we  learn  by  experience,  that  the  worst  forms 
of  indigestion  and  nervous  depression  are  those 
which  arise  from  excessive  application  of  mind,  or 
turmoil  of  feeling,  conjoined  with  unrestrained  in- 
dulgence in  the  pleasures  of  the  table.  In  such  cir- 
cumstances, the  stomach  and  brain  react  upon  and 
disturb  each  other,  till  all  the  horrors  of  nervous 
disease  make  their  unwelcome  appearance,  and  ren- 
der life  miserable.  Literary  men  and  hard  students 
know  this  fact  from  sad  experience ;  but  as  they  are 
not  aware  of  the  incompatibility  of  the  two  processes 
of  active  thinking  and  active  digestion  going  on  at 
the  same  time,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  give  them 
a  sense  of  their  danger,  and  to  convince  them  that 
an  hour,  or  an  hour  and  a  half,  after  a  meal  is  more 
profitably  spent  in  easy  relaxation  than  in  the 


OF   THE   BRAIN   AND   MIND.  237 

abour  of  composition.  As  regards  the  lower  ani- 
mals, indeed,  we  are  careful  enough  to  observe  this 
organic  law  ;  for  we  do  not  allow  our  horses  or 
dogs  to  be  actively  exercised  till  digestion  is  in  some 
degree  completed. 

It  may  be  said  that  mechanics,  labourers,  and 
others  hurry  away  to  work  immediately  after  meals, 
and  that,  in  the  United  States,  the  practice  of  hastily 
swallowing  dinner  and  instantly  returning  to  busi- 
ness is  proverbially  common.  My  answer  to  this 
objection  is  simply,  that  experience  proves  the  fact, 
that  digestion  goes  on  better  when  exertion  is  re- 
frained from  and  repose  is  enjoyed,  and  that  the 
tendency  to  sleep  and  inactivity  which  besets  most 
animals  after  a  full  meal  shows  repose  to  be,  in  such 
circumstances,  the  intention  of  nature.  It  must  be 
observed  also,  that  the  bad  effects  of  immediate  ex- 
ertion are  not  of  that  description  which  ensue  in- 
stantly, or  are  felt  from  day  to  day.  These  may 
show  themselves  only  at  the  end  of  months  or 
years,  when  the  influence  has,  as  it  were,  accumu- 
lated by  repetition.  Although,  therefore,  the  sys- 
tem possesses  a  certain  power  of  resistance,  and 
many  persons  seem  to  escape  even  for  years,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  opposition  to  the  law  of  na- 
ture will  eventually  prove  injurious.  The  extreme 
prevalence  of  dyspeptic  complaints  and  of  insanity 
among  the  Americans  is,  in  all  probability,  partly 
owing  to  the  very  practice  which  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  harmless  to  them. 

The  time  best  adapted  for  mental  exertion  falls 
next  to  be  considered.  Nature  has  allotted  the 
darkness  of  night  for  repose,  and  the  restoration  by 
sleep  of  the  exhausted  energies  of  mind  and  body. 
If  study  or  composition  be  ardently  engaged  in  to- 
wards that  period  of  the  day,  the  increased  action 
in  the  brain  which  always  accompanies  activity  of 
mind  requires  a  long  time  to  subside ;  and,  if  the 
individual  be  at  all  of  an  irritable  habit  of  body,  he 


238          RULES   FOR    THE    PROPER   EXERCISE 

will  be  sleepless  for  hours  after  going  to  bed,  or 
perhaps  be  tormented  by  unpleasant  dreams.  If, 
notwithstanding,  the  practice  be  continued,  the 
want  of  refreshing  repose  will  ultimately  induce  a 
state  of  morbid  irritability  of  the  nervous  system, 
not  far  distant  from  insanity.  It  is  therefore  of 
great  advantage  to  engage  in  severer  studies  early 
in  the  day,  and  devote  the  two  or  three  hours  which 
precede  bedtime  to  lighter  reading,  music,  or  amus- 
ing conversation.  The  vascular  excitement  pre- 
viously induced  in  the  head  by  study  has  then  time 
to  subside,  and  sound  refreshing  sleep  is  much  more 
certainly  obtained.  This  rule  is  of  great  conse- 
quence to  those  who  are  obliged  to  undergo  much 
mental  labour. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  individuals  so  happily  consti- 
tuted, and  whose  natural  sphere  is  so  essentially 
that  of  activity,  that  they  are  able  to  think  and  work, 
early  and  late,  for  years  in  succession,  with  very 
little  sleep,  and  with  little  regard  to  diet  and  regi- 
men ;  but  they  are  so  obviously  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule,  that  we  cannot  for  a  moment  hold  them 
up  as  models  for  imitation;  and  even  they  would 
enjoy  their  astonishing  gifts  with  greater  security, 
were  they  to  conform  more  completely  with  the 
laws  of  their  organization. 

Periodicity,  or  the  tendency  to  resume  the  same 
mode  of  action  at  stated  times,  is  peculiarly  the 
characteristic  of  the  nervous  system ;  and,  on  this 
account,  regularity  is  of  great  consequence  in  exer 
cising  the  moral  and  intellectual  powers.  All  ner- 
vous diseases  have  a  marked  tendency  to  observe 
regular  periods,  and  the  natural  inclination  to  sleep 
at  the  approach  of  night  is  but  another  instance  of 
the  same  fact.  It  is  this  principle  of  our  nature 
which  promotes  the  formation  of  what  are  called 
habits.  If  we  repeat  any  kind  of  mental  effort  every 
day  at  the  same  hour,  we  at  last  find  ourselves  enter- 
ing upon  it,  without  premeditation,  when  the  time 


OP    THE   BRAIN   AND    MIND.  239 

approaches ;  and,  in  like  manner,  if  we  arrange  our 
studies  in  accordance  with  this  law,  and  take  up 
each  regularly  in  the  same  order,  a  natural  aptitude 
is  soon  produced,  which  renders  application  more 
easy  than  by  taking  up  the  subjects  as  accident  may 
direct.  Nay,  the  tendency  to  periodical  and  asso- 
ciated activity  occasionally  becomes  so  great,  in  the 
course  of  time,  that  the  faculties  seem  to  go  through 
their  operations  almost  without  conscious  effort, 
while  their  facility  of  action  becomes  so  prodigi- 
ously increased,  as  to  give  unerring  certainty  where 
at  first  difficulty  and  doubt  were  the  only  results.* 

In  thus  acquiring  readiness  and  forming  habits,  we 
merely  turn  to  account  that  organic  law  which  asso- 
ciates increased  aptitude,  animation,  and  vigour  with 
regular  exercise.  It  is  not  the  soul  or  abstract 
principle  of  mind  which  is  thus  changed,  but  simply 
the  organic  medium  through  which  it  is  destined  to 
act;  and,  when  we  compare  the  rapid  and  easy  elo- 
quence of  the  practised  orator  with  the  slow  and 
embarrassed  utterance  which  distinguished  him  at 
the  outset  of  his  career,  we  have  merely  a  counter- 
part, in  the  organ  of  mind,  of  what  is  effected  in  the 
organs  of  motion,  when  the  easy  and  graceful  move- 
ments of  the  practised  dancer,  writer,  or  piano-forte 
player  take  the  place  of  his  earliest  and  rudest  at- 
tempts. 

The  necessity  of  judicious  repetition  in  mental  and 
moral  education  is  in  fact  too  little  adverted  to,  be- 
cause the  principle  on  which  it  is  effectual  has  not 

*  These  remarks  are  curiously  confirmed  by  an  anecdote  of 
Sildo  Pellico,  which  I  read  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review 
(No.  xxii.  p.  478),  when  this  sheet  was  passing  through  the 
press.  When  first  imprisoned,  Pellico  was  "  allowed  the  use  of 
a  copy  of  Dante  and  the  Bible.  Of  the  former,  he  used  to  com- 
mit a  canto  to  memory  every  day,  till  a  last  the  exercise  became 
to  mechanical  that  it  ceased  to  afford  any  interruption  to  the  train  of 
melancholy  thought."  I  need  scarcely  point  out  the  coincidence 
between  this  and  the  remarks  in  the  text. 


240         RULES    FOR    THE    PROPER    EXERCISE 

been  understood.  To  induce  facility  of  action  in 
the  organs  of  the  mind,  practice  is  as  essential  as  it 
is  in  the  organs  of  motion.  The  idea  or  feeling 
must  not  only  be  communicated,  but  it  must  be  re- 
produced and  represented,  in  different  forms,  till  all 
the  faculties  concerned  in  understanding  it  come  to 
work  efficiently  together  in  the  conception  of  it.  We 
often  blame  servants  for  not  doing  a  thing  every 
day,  because  they  were  once  told  to  do  so.  The 
organic  laws,  however,  teach  us  that  we  are  pre- 
sumptuous in  expecting  the  formation  of  a  habit 
from  a  single  act,  and  that  we  must  reproduce  the 
associated  activity  of  the  requisite  faculties  many 
times  before  the  result  will  certainly  follow.  We 
find,  on  turning  to  a  new  subject,  that  however  well 
we  may  understand  it  by  one  perusal,  we  do  not 
fully  master  it,  except  by  dwelling  upon  it  again  and 
again. 

Repetition  is  thus  necessary  to  make  a  durable  im- 
pression on  the  brain ;  and,  according  to  this  prh> 
ciple,  it  follows  that,  in  learning  a  language  or 
science,  six  successive  months  of  application  will 
be  more  effectual  in  fixing  it  in  the  mind,  and  making 
it  a  part  of  its  furniture,  than  double  or  triple  the 
time,  if  interrupted  by  long  intervals.  Hence  it  is 
a  great  error  to  begin  any  study,  and  then  break  off 
to  finish  at  a  later  period.  The  ennui  is  thus  doubled 
and  the  success  greatly  diminished.  The  best  way 
is  to  begin  at  the  proper  age,  and  to  persevere  till 
the  end  is  attained.  This  accustoms  the  mind  to 
sound  exertion,  and  not  to  fits  of  attention.  Hence 
the  mischief  of  long  vacations,  and  hence  the  evil 
of  beginning  studies  before  the  age  at  which  they 
can  be  understood,  as  in  teaching  the  abstract  rules 
of  grammar  to  children  ;  to  succeed  in  which  im- 
plies in  them  a  power  of  thinking,  and  an  amount 
of  general  knowledge,  which  they  cannot  possess. 

In  physical  education,  we  are  quite  alive  to  the 
advantages  of  repetition  and  practice.  We  know 


OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  MIND.         241 

that  if  practice  in  dancing,  fencing,  skating,  and 
riding  be  persevered  in  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  give  the  muscles  the  requisite  promptitude  and 
harmony  of  action,  the  power  will  be  ever  afterward 
retained,  although  little  called  into  use.  Whereas, 
if  we  stop  short  of  this  point,  we  may  reiterate  prac- 
tice by  fits  and  starts,  without  any  proportionate 
v  advancement.  The  same  principle  applies  equally 
to  the  moral  and  intellectual  powers,  because  these 
operate  by  means  of  material  organs. 

The  necessity  of  being  in  private  what  we  wish 
to  appear  in  public  springs  from  the  same  rule.  If 
we  wish  to  be  polite,  just,  kind,  and  sociable,  we 
must  habitually  act  under  the  influence  of  the  cor- 
responding sentiments  in  the  domestic  circle  and  in 
every-day  life,  as  well  as  in  the  company  of  strangers 
and  on  great  occasions.  It  is  the  daily  practice 
which  gives  ready  activity  to  the  sentiments,  and 
marks  the  character.  If  we  indulge  in  vulgarities  of 
speech  and  behaviour  at  home,  and  put  on  politeness 
merely  for  the  reception  of  strangers,  the  former 
will  shine  through  the  mask  which  is  intended  to 
hide  them  ;  because  the  habitual  association  to  which 
the  organs  and  faculties  have  been  accustomed  can- 
not be  thus  controlled.  As  well  may  we  hope  to 
excel  in  elegant  and  graceful  dancing  by  the  daily 
practice  of  every  awkward  attitude.  In  the  one 
case,  as  in  the  other,  the  organs  must  not  only  be 
associated  in  action  by  the  command  of  the  will,  but 
they  must  be  habituated  to  the  association  by  the 
frequency  of  the  practice  ;  a  fact  which  exposes  the 
ignorant  folly  of  those  parents  who  habitually  act 
with  rudeness  and  caprice  towards  their  children, 
and  then  chide  the  latter  for  unpolite  behaviour  to- 
wards strangers. 

The  same  principle,  of  repetition  being  necessary 
to  make  a  durable  impression  on  the  brain  and  con- 
stitute a  mental  habit,  also  explains  the  manner  in 
which  natural  endowments  are  modified  by  external 
X 


242          RULES    FOR    THE    PROPER    EXERCISE 

situation.  Taking  the  average  of  mankind,  the  limits 
to  which  this  modification  may  be  carried  are  not 
narrow.  Place  a  child,  for  example,  of  average  pro- 
pensities, sentiments,  and  intellect,  among  a  class 
of  people — thieves — in  whom  the  selfish  faculties 
are  exclusively  exercised;  by  whom  gain  is  wor- 
shipped as  tKe  end  of  life,  and  cunning  and  cheating 
as  the  means,  and  among  whom  it  never  hears  one 
word  of  disapprobation  or  moral  indignation  against 
either  crime  or  sentiment;  and  its  lower  faculties 
will  be  exclusively  exercised  and  increase  in  strength, 
while  the  higher  will  be  left  unemployed  and  become 
weak.  A  child  so  situated  will  consequently  not 
only  act  as  those  around  do,  but  insensibly  grow  up 
resembling  them  in  disposition  and  character,  be- 
cause, by  the  law  of  repetition,  the  organs  of  the 
selfish  faculties  will  have  acquired  proportionally 
greater  aptitude  and  vigour,  just  as  the  muscles  of 
the  fencer  or  dancer.  But  suppose  the  same  indi- 
vidual placed  from  infancy  in  the  society  of  a  supe- 
riorly endowed  moral  and  intellectual  people  ;  the 
moral  faculties  will  then  be  habitually  excited  and 
their  organs  invigorated  by  repetition,  till  a  greater 
aptitude,  or  in  other  words,  a  higher  moral  char- 
acter, will  be  formed.  There  are,  of  course,  limits 
set  to  this  modification  by  the  natural  endowments 
of  the  individual :  but  where  the  original  dispositions 
are  not  strongly  marked,  the  range  is  still  a  wide  one. 

From  this  source  arise  many  differences,  not  only 
of  individual,  but  of  national  character,  and  such  dif- 
ferences as  we  observe  take  place  from  changes  of 
fortune  and  condition.  The  Negro  free  in  Africa 
differs  widely  from  the  Negro  subjected  to  the 
scourge  of  the  colonist. 

The  truth  of  these  remarks  is  confirmed  by  M. 
Arago,  in  his  account  of  Freycinet's  Voyage  round 
the  World  in  1818-19-20.  In  speaking  of  the  dif- 
ferent results  of  the  same  education  in  the  Isle  of 
France  and  in  the  mother  country,  he  observes,  that 


OF   THE    BRA,*    AND    MIND.  243 

the  professors,  the  methods,  and  the  subjects  taught 
are  quite  on  a  par  with  those  of  Paris ;  but  that, 
nevertheless,  from  the  very  early  maturity  of  the 
human  being  in  that  climate,  the  pupils  are  removed 
from  school  so  soon  that  the  impression  made  on 
their  minds  is  speedily  obliterated  ;  on  which  ac- 
count, he  adds,  the  only  really  educated  and  well- 
informed  men  whom  he  met  with  are  those  who  had 
been  sent  to  France  very  young,  and  retained  there 
till  a  later  age  and  more  thorough  grounding  had 
been  attained,  after  which  the  risk  of  losing  their 
acquirements  was  greatly  diminished. 

The  next  rule  to  be  observed  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  brain  and  mental  faculties,  is  founded  on  that 
law  of  our  constitution,  which  directs  each  organ  to 
be  exercised  directly  upon  its  own  objects,  and  not 
merely  roused  or  addressed  through  the  medium  of 
another  organ.  We  have  said,  that  when  we  wish, 
for  example,  to  teach  the  graceful  and  rapid  evolu- 
tions of  fencing,  we  do  not  content  ourselves  with 
merely  giving  directions,  but  our  chief  attention  is 
employed  in  making  the  muscles  themselves  go 
through  the  evolutions,  till,  by  frequent  repetition 
and  correction,  they  acquire  the  requisite  quickness 
and  precision  of  action  ;  or  when  we  wish  to  teach 
music,  we  do  not  merely  address  the  understanding 
and  explain  the  qualities  of  sounds,  but  we  train  the 
ear  to  their  attentive  discrimination,  and  the  hand 
to  the  reproduction  of  the  motions  which  call  them 
into  existence.  We  follow  this  plan,  because  the 
laws  of  organization  require  direct  practice,  and  we 
feel  instinctively  that  we  can  succeed  only  by  obey 
ing  them.  Now,  the  purely  mental  faculties,  being 
connected  during  life  with  material  organs,  are  sub- 
jected to  precisely  the  same  law;  and  therefore  if 
we  wish  to  improve  the  reasoning  powers,  we  must 
exercise  them  regularly  in  tracing  the  causes  and 
relations  of  things.  And,  in  like  manner,  if  oar  aim 


244    RULES  FOR  THE  PROPER  EXERCISE 

is  to  develop  the  sentiments  of  Attachment,  Bene- 
volence, Justice,  or  Devotion,  we  must  exercise 
each  of  them  directly  and  for  its  own  sake,  other- 
wise neither  it  nor  its  organ  will  ever  acquire  prompti- 
tude or  strength. 

It  ought  never  to  be  forgotten,  that  in  education 
it  is  the  brain,  or  organ  of  mind,  and  not  the  abstract 
immaterial  principle,  which  requires  cultivation,  and 
that  hence  education  operates  invariably  in  subjection 
to  the  laws  of  organization.  In  improving  the  ex- 
ternal senses,  we  admit  this  principle  readily  enough ; 
but  whenever  we  come  to  the  internal  faculties  of 
thought  and  feeling,  it  is  either  denied  or  neglected. 
With  gross  inconsistency,  we  admit  that  the  superior 
quickness  of  touch,  sight,  and  hearing,  consequent 
upon  judicious  exercise,  is  always  referable  to  in- 
creased facility  of  action  in  their  appropriate  organs ; 
but  when  we  explain,  on  the  same  principle,  the 
superior  development  of  the  reasoning  powers,  or 
the  greater  warmth  of  feeling  produced  by  similar 
exercise  in  these  and  other  internal  faculties,  few 
are  inclined  to  listen  to  our  proposition,  or  allow  to 
it  half  the  weight  or  attention  which  its  importance 
requires,  although  every  fact  in  philosophy  and  ex- 
perience concurs  in  supporting  it.  We  see  the  men- 
tal powers  of  feeling  and  of  thought  unfolding  them- 
selves in  infancy  and  youth  in  exact  accordance 
with  the  progress  of  the  organization, — we  see  them 
perverted  or  suspended  by  the  sudden  inroad  of  dis- 
ease, and  as  suddenly  restored  :  nay,  we  sometimes 
observe  every  previous  acquirement  obliterated  from 
the  adult  mind  by  fever  or  by  accident,  leave  edu- 
cation to  be  commenced  anew,  as  if  it  had  never 
been  ;  and  yet,  with  all  these  evidences  of  the  organic 
influence,  it  is  still  a  novelty  in  education  to  propose 
that  the  established  laws  of  physiology,  as  applied 
to  the  brain,  should  be  considered  as  bur  best  and 
surest  guide ;  and  scarcely  a  volume  can  be  pointed 
out  in  which  it  is  even  hinted  that  these  laws  have 


OF   THE    BRAIN   AND  MIND.  245 

the  slightest  influence  over  mental  or  moral  im- 
provement. 

Were  a  general  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of 
organization  to  be  held  as  an  indispensable  part  of 
a  liberal  education,  we  would  then  be  able  to  incul- 
cate, with  tenfold  force  and  success,  the  necessity 
of  actively  exercising  every  faculty,  whether  of 
thought,  feeling,  or  motion,  directly  on  its  own  ob- 
jects, and  at  once  to  explode  the  mistake  of  sup- 
posing that  any  organ  or  function  may  be  efficiently 
exercised  through  the  medium  of  another,  and  that, 
to  produce  high  moral  feeling,  it  is  sufficient  to  ad- 
dress ourselves  to  the  intellect  alone.  The  merest 
savage,  following  the  footsteps  of  nature,  would  pity 
the  philosopher  who  would  seriously  assure  him 
that,  to  cultivate  aouteness  of  hearing  or  of  vision, 
it  was  sufficient  to  be  told  how  to  listen  or  to  look. 
The  savage  goes  more  directly  and  surely  to  work. 
If  he  wants  physical  strength,  agility,  and  swiftness 
of  foot,  he  sets  himself  to  develop  the  muscular 
system  of  his  child  by  ample  muscular  exercise,  by 
constant  repetition  of  the  movements  and  acts  he 
wishes  him  to  perform,  and  by  causing  him  to  run, 
to  leap,  or  to  swim ;  and  he  rests  in  well-founded 
hope  of  accomplishing  his  purpose.  Following  the 
same  rule  when  he  seeks  acuteness  of  hearing,  he 
does  not  merely  tell  his  child  how  to  listen,  but  he 
lays  him  with  his  ear  to  the  ground,  and  teaches  him, 
by  practice,  to  distinguish  the  qualities  of  sounds. 
If  he  wishes  him  to  excel  in  hunting,  in  fishing,  in 
lying  in  ambush,  or  in  scenting  the  approach  of  an 
enemy,  he  expects  to  be  successful  only  in  propor- 
tion as  he  finds  occasion  to  employ  him  in  the  prac- 
tice of  these  pursuits.  If  he  wishes  to  inculcate 
courage  in  battle,  contempt  of  pain,  endurance  of 
fatigue,  obedience  to  chiefs,  or  revenge  upon  ene- 
mies, he  chooses  the  sure  way,  and  cultivates  each 
of  these  qualities  by  calling  it  into  direct  action  00 
its  own  objects  ;  and  we  all  know  the  success  which 


246         RULES    FOR   THE    PROPER   EXERCISE 

the  savage  meets  with  in  the  education  which  he 
bestows. 

With  this  experience  before  our  eyes,  then,  let 
us,  who  pretend  to  superior  wisdom  and  civilization, 
show  ourselves  also  consistent,  and  ready  to  receive 
instruction  from  whatever  quarter  it  may  come.  As 
God  has  given  us  bones,  and  muscles,  and  blood- 
vessels, and  nerves,  for  the  purpose  of  being  used, 
let  us  not  despise  the  gift,  but  consent  at  once  to 
turn  them  to  account,  and  to  reap  health  and  vigour 
as  the  reward  which  He  has  associated  with  moder- 
ate labour.  As  he  has  given  us  lungs  to  breathe 
with,  and  blood  to  circulate,  let  us  give  up  our  folly 
of  shutting  ourselves  up  with  so  little  intermission 
in  rooms  in  inactive  study  and  sedentary  occupa- 
tions, and  consent  to  inhale  copiously  and  freely 
that  wholesome  atmosphere  which  His  benevolence 
has  spread  around  us.  As  He  has  given  us  appe- 
tites and  organs  of  digestion,  let  us  profit  by  His 
bounty,  and  earn  their  enjoyment  by  healthful  exer- 
cise. As  He  has  given  us  a  moral  and  a  social 
nature,  which  is  invigorated  by  activity,  and  im- 
paired by  solitude  and  restraint,  let  us  cultivate  good 
feeling,  and  act  towards  each  other  on  principles  of 
kindness,  justice,  forbearance,  and  mutual  assist- 
ance ;  and  as  He  has  given  us  intellect,  let  us  exer- 
cise it  in  seeking  a  knowledge  of  His  works  and  of 
His  laws,  and  in  tracing  out  the  relation  in  which 
we  stand  towards  Him,  towards  our  fellow-men,  and 
towards  the  various  objects  of  the  external  world ; 
and,  in  perfect  faith  and  sincerity,  let  us  rely  upon 
His  promise,  that,  in  so  doing,  we  shall  have  a 
rich  reward — a  reward  a  thousand  times  more  pure, 
more  permanent,  and  more  delightful,  than  we  can 
ever  hope  to  experience  in  following  our  own  blind 
devices,  regardless  of  His  will  and  intentions 
towards  us. 

So  little,  however,  are  even  educated  men  familiar 
with  the  influence  and  laws  of  the  organization,  that, 


OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  MIND.        247 

even  in  our  best  directed  establishments,  as  well  as  in 
private  families,  cultivation  is  still  in  a  great  measure 
confined  to  intellect  alone ;  and  the  direct  exercise 
and  training  of  the  moral  and  religious  sentiments 
and  affections  upon  their  own  objects  are  rarely 
thought  of  as  essential  to  their  full  and  vigorous 
development.  Moral  precepts  are  no  doubt  offered 
in  abundance  ;  but  these  address  themselves  chiefly 
to  the  intellect.  We  must  not  be  satisfied  with 
merely  exclaiming,  "Be  kind,  just,  and  affectionate," 
\vhen  perhaps  at  the  very  moment  we  are  counter- 
acting the  effect  of  the  advice  by  our  own  opposite 
conduct.  Parents  and  teachers  too  often  forget 
that  the  sentiments  feel,  and  do  not  reason,  and  that, 
consequently,  a  mere  child  may,  by  the  instinctive 
operation  of  its  moral  nature,  at  once  detect  and  be 
revolted  at  the  immorality  of  practices,  the  true 
character  of  which  its  reason  is  unable  to  penetrate 
or  expose.  What  kind  of  moral  education  is  that, 
for  instance,  which,  while  the  instructress  vilifies 
the  physical  appetites  of  hunger  and  thirst,  and 
preaches  disregard  of  their  cravings  and  of  the  grati- 
fications of  taste,  leads  her  to  set  down  a  meal  to 
her  boarders,  from  partaking  in  which  she  betrays 
the  strongest  desire  to  escape,  on  account  of  its 
inferiority  to  that  which  is  provided  for  herself  and 
the  few  at  the  head  of  the  establishment?  What 
advances  in  morality  and  religion  can  be  expected 
under  the  charge  of  one,  who  says,  "  Do  unto  others 
as  you  would  be  done  by"  and  then  leaves  his  depend- 
ants to  suffer  pain,  chilblains,  and  disease,  from 
want  of  fire  to  warm  the  room  in  which  they  sit,  he 
himself  coming  into  it  with  features  flushed  by  the 
heat  of  the  blazing  fire,  which,  for  weeks,  has  been 
provided  for  his  comfort  in  his  own  apartment? 
What  generosity  of  feeling  can  arise  from  the  super- 
intendence of  a  teacher,  who,  though  liberally  paid 
for  the  food  of  her  pupils,  and  with  moral  precepts 
on  her  lips,  satisfies  the  cravings  of  nature  in  the 


248  RULE^    FOR    THE    PROFfCft    EXEKc'ISfi 

long  intervals  between  meals,  only  at  the  expense 
of  the  pence  constituting  the  pocket-money  of  the* 
scholar] — the  food  in  this  case  being  denied,  not 
because  it  is  considered  improper, — for  were  thai 
the  case,  it  would  be  a  dereliction  of  duty  to  give  it 
on  any  terms, — but  from  sheer  meanness  and  cu- 
pidity. What  kind  of  moral  duties  does  the  parent 
encourage,  who,  recommending  kindness,  openness, 
and  justice,  tricks  the  child  into  the  confession  of 
faults,  and  then  basely  punishes  it,  having  previ- 
ously promised  forgiveness  1  And  how  is  openness 
best  encouraged, — by  practising  it  in  conduct,  or  by 
neglecting  it  in  practice,  but  praising  it  in  words  ? 
Is  it  to  be  cultivated  by  thrusting  suspicions  in  the 
face  of  honest  intentions  1  And  how  is  justice  to  be 
cultivated  by  a  guardian  who  speaks  about  it,  recom- 
mends it,  and  in  practice  charges  each  of  four  pupils 
the  whole  fare  of  a  hackney-coach  1  Or  what  kind 
of  moral  education  is  that  which  says,  "Do  as  I  bid 
you,  and  I  will  give  you  sweetmeats  or  money,  or  I  will 
tell  your  mamma  how  good  you  were ;"  holding  out  the 
lowest  and  most  selfish  propensities  as  the  motives 
to  moral  conduct !  Did  space  permit,  I  might  in- 
deed pursue  the  whole  round  of  moral  and  religious 
duties,  and  ask  similiar  questions  at  each.  But  it 
is  needless.  These  examples  will  suffice ;  and  I  give 
them,  not  as  applicable  generally  either  to  parents 
or  teachers,  but  simply  as  individual  instances  from 
among  both,  which  have  come  within  the  sphere 
of  my  own  knowledge,  and  which  bear  directly 
upon  the  principle  under  discussion. 

The  moral  sentiments,  it  may  be  observed,  are  so 
many  determinate  impulses  given  us  by  the  Creatoi 
to  act  in  a  certain  way  towards  those  around  us,  and 
it  is  not  necessary  that  some  extraordinary  situa- 
tion should  be  waited  for  to  give  them  full  employ- 
ment. Benevolence,  no  doubt,  is  strongly  excited 
by  the  aspect  of  misery  and  unhappiness,  and  im- 
pels strongly  to  the  relief  of  the  Buffering  object 


OF    THE    BRAIN    AND    MIND.  249 

tut  this  is  not  its  most  common  or  its  most  useful 
field.  In  ordinary  life,  it  finds  ample  scope  in  chanty 
to  our  neighbours,  and  in  contributing  to  the  happi- 
ness of  our  family  circle  and  of  our  associates  and 
dependants.  Benevolence  is  much  better  occupied 
in  adding  a  gleam  of  enjoyment,  in  removing  little 
sources  of  irritation,  in  promoting  concord  among" 
relatives,  and  in  other  kind  offices  of  a  similar  nature, 
than  in  giving  alms  indiscriminately  to  all  who  de 
mand  them,  or  even  in  relieving  occasional  distress, 
where  this  is  held  to  dispense,  as  it  too  often  is, 
with  all  obligation  to  habitual  forbearance  and  Chris- 
tian good-will  in  the  private  relations  of  life.  But 
how  little  is  this  most  important  faculty  directly 
attended  to  or  cultivated,  in  the  way  we  see  done 
with  the  faculties  necessary  for  the  practice  of 
drawing  or  music,  which,  by  incessant  exercise 

Erocured  at  a  great  sacrifice  of  time,  money,  and 
ibour,  are  brought  into  such  a  state  of  activity  as 
ever  after  to  enable  their  possessors  to  derive  de- 
light from  their  exercise,  where  the  talents  are 
possessed  in  any  considerable  degree  !  And  what 
might  we  not  expect  from  the  systematic  training  of 
the  higher  sentiments  on  a  similar  plan,  in  improv- 
ing society  and  exalting  the  happiness  of  the  race ! 
But  it  is  evident,  that  the  objects  of  benevolence 
are  our  fellow-creatures ;  and  consequently,  if  we 
restrict  our  intercourse  and  our  sympathies  to  the 
limits  of  our  own  drawing-rooms,  and  take  no  in- 
terest in  the  progress  of  the  race,  or  of  the  individ- 
uals composing  it,  we  leave  our  best  faculties  in 
abeyance,  and  reap  the  reward  of  bodily  debility  and 
mental  weakness  and  monotony. 

Conscientiousness  is  another  principle  of  the 
mind  that  requires  direct  cultivation,  and  that  rarely 
receives  it.  It  holds  the  balance  between  man  and 
man,  and  is  excited  by  the  presentment  of  any  dif- 
ference of  right  between  individuals,  of  any  injus- 
tice, of  any  temptation  offered  by  the  other  faculties, 


250     RULES  FOR  THE  PROPER  EXERCISE 

which  may  lead  us  to  encroach  on  others.  It  gives 
a  strong  sense  of  duty,  with  which  it  is  agreeable 
to  act  in  conformity,  but  which  it  is  painful  and  inju- 
rious to  oppose.  It  gives  weight  and  force  to  the 
impulses  of  the  other  sentiments,  and,  joined  with 
intellect  and  the  sentiment  of  devotion,  gives  that 
faith  in  the  beneficence  and  equity  of  the  Deity, 
and  in  the  immutability  of  all  his  laws,  that  forms 
the  strongest  encouragement  to  virtuous  conduct 
and  temporary  self-denial.  And  here  again,  living 
in  society,  engaging  in  the  active  duties  of  life,  and 
acting  justly  amid  the  conflicting  interests  of  others, 
and  not  seclusion  and  privacy,  are  manifestly  in- 
tended by  the  Creator  as  our  proper  sphere. 

I  need  not  follow  out  this  exposition  in  detail. 
The  above  illustrations  will  suffice  to  explain  the 
principle ;  and  to  exceed  this  limit  would  withdraw 
attention  too  much  from  the  matters  more  directly 
before  us. 

For  the  same  reason  that  every  faculty  ought  to 
be  exercised  directly  upon  its  own  objects,  the 
exclusive  use  of  book-education  as  a  means  of  con- 
veying instruction,  is  manifestly  unnatural  as  well 
as  inefficient.  If  allowed  to  handle  and  examine  a 
new  object,  a  child  will  pursue  the  investigation 
with  pleasure,  and  in  five  minutes  will  acquire  more 
correct  knowledge  than  by  a  whole  hour's  reading 
about  its  qualities  without  seeing  it.  In  the  one 
instance  its  perceptive  powers  are  stimulated  by  the 
direct  presence  of  the  qualities  of  which  they  are 
destined  to  take  cognizance ;  while,  in  the  other, 
they  are  roused  only  through  the  imperfect  medium 
of  artificial  language,  and  the  child  has  to  create  the 
object  in  his  own  mind  before  he  can  take  notice  of 
its  qualities.  When  we  recollect  the  different  ideas 
which  the  carne  written  language  suggests  to  differ- 
ent mature  m?nds,  we  may  form  some  conception  of 
the  impossibility  of  a  child  making  progress  in  this 
way,  and  of  the  weariness  and  ennui  which  the 


OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  MIND.        251 

thankless  effort  must  always  induce ;  and  yet,  at  the 
present  day,  in  nineteen  out  of  twenty  schools,  all 
the  knowledge  that  is  offered  is  through  the  medium 
of  books  and  language  alone  ! 

Adequate  exercise  of  the  perceptive  powers  would 
require  a  certain  amount  of  muscular  exertion,  and 
of  daily  exposure  to  the  open  air,  in  going  about 
to  collect  and  examine  the  varied  objects  of  interest 
with  which  creation  abounds.  In  other  words,  the 
perceptive  faculties  cannot  be  successfully  cultivated, 
without  at  the  same  time  benefiting  the  muscular 
system,  and  the  organs  of  respiration,  circulation, 
and  digestion;  and  this  grand  recommendation  in 
the  eye  of  reason,  viz.  pursuing  study  in  the  field  of 
nature  instead  of  in  books,  is  actually,  though  not 
avowedly,  the  circumstance  which  retards  its  adop- 
tion in  ordinary  education. 

What,  therefore,  is  wanted  is  a  system  of  education 
in  harmony  with  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind, 
and  a  mode  of  life  and  of  occupation  which  shall  give, 
not  only  full  play  to  the  intellectual  powers,  but  also 
healthy  excitement  and  activity,  and  a  right  direction,  to 
the  moral,  religious,  and  effective  feelings. 

The  details  of  such  a  system  do  not  fall  under  the 
scope  of  a  treatise  like  this ;  and  I  must,  for  the 
present,  content  myself  with  the  exposition  of  the 
general  principle.  A  serious  obstacle  to  entering 
upon  the  regular  exertion  here  recommended  re- 
quires to  be  noticed,  as  it  arises  from  a  feeling  in  the 
patient  against  which  he  cannot  be  too  much  on  his 
guard.  Where  the  nervous  system  is  weak,  and 
where  it,  of  course,  requires  most  to  be  strengthened, 
there  is  often  a  retiring  sensitiveness  of  disposition, 
leading  its  possessor  rather  to  avoid  than  to  seek 
intercourse  with  society.  Feeling  the  irksomeness 
of  present  exertion,  the  nervous  invalid  is  apt  to 
form  the  secret  resolution  to  live  in  solitude  till  the 
mind  shall  become  stronger,  and  then  to  seek  society 
when  it  will  no  longer  be  a  burden.  Unhappily, 


152  PHRENOLOGY. 

however,  this  feeling  leads  only  to  delusion,  and  the 
wished-for  result  becomes  every  day  more  distant, 
the  longer  retirement  and  indolence  are  persevered 
in.  It  is  by  activity,  and  not  by  repose,  that  strength 
is  to  be  acquired.  We  do  not  expect  to  increase 
bodily  strength  by  lying  in  bed,  but  by  stirring  about ; 
and,  in  like  manner,  we  shall  never  succeed  in 
strengthening  the  nervous  system  by  indulging  in 
mental  indolence.  Many  are  led  astray  by  the  false 
expectation  of  acquiring  strength  without  using  the 
\iatural  means  from  which  alone  strength  can  be 
procured. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  in  the  preceding  pages  I 
have  made  no  allusion  to  the  doctrines  of  Phre- 
nology. My  reasons  are  simply,  that,  for  the  object 
I  had  in  view,  a  special  reference  to  them  was  not 
necessary,  and  that,  in  a  work  written  for  the 
general  reader,  and  for  practical  purposes,  1  was 
naturally  anxious  to  avoid  every  contested  point. 
Accordingly,  in  limiting  myself  to  the  statement 
that  different  parts  of  the  brain  perform  differ- 
ent functions,  without  specifying  those  connected 
with  any  particular  part,  farther  than  that  they  are 
all  concerned  in  the  mental  operations,  I  am  not 
venturing  beyond  what  most  eminent  anatomists 
and  physiologists  in  the  past  or  present  times  have 
taught  before  me.  My  own  sentiments  on  the  sub- 
ject are  already  before  the  public  ;*  and  I  am  bound 
to  say  that  every  day's  experience  increases  my 
conviction  of  the  truth  of  Phrenology,  and  deepens 
my  sense  of  its  practical  value.  Those  who  desire 
to  prosecute  the  inquiry  will  find  ample  assistance 
in  the  numerous  works  already  published,  both  in 
England  and  in  France.  The  splendid  work  of  Vi- 
mont  would  do  honour  to  any  age  or  country. 

*  Vide  Observations  on  Mental  Derangement ;  being  an  appli- 
cation of  the  Principles  of  Phrenology  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
Causes,  Symptoms,  Nature,  and  Treatment  of  Insanity.  1  vol. 
post  8vo,  1831. 


INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH.     253 

I  have  already  had  frequent  occasion  to  notice  the 
direct  influence  exercised  by  the  mind  and  brain 
over  all  the  bodily  functions,  and  over  the  general 
health.  As  the  subject  is  an  important  one,  and  has 
not  received  all  the  attention  which  it  deserves,  it 
may  be  proper,  before  concluding,  to  offer  a  few 
remarks  on  it, 

The  nervous  fluid  or  influence  presents  many 
phenomena  allied  to  those  of  electricity,  but  its  real 
flature  is  not  yet  known.  All  that  can  be  said  is,  that 
it  is  an  influence  of  a  peculiar  kind,  originating  in  the 
Jbrain  and  nervous  system ;  and  that,  like  the  blood, 
it  is  essential  to  the  vital  action  of  every  animal 
organ.  When  I  move  the  hand  in  writing,  the 
muscles  of  the  arm  are  called  into  play  by  an  influ- 
ence transmitted  to  them  from  the  brain,  by  means 
of  the  soft  white  cords  called  nerves.  This  stimu^ 
lus  is  so  indispensable,  that  if  the  communication 
between  the  brain  and  the  muscles  be  cut  off,  by 
dividing  or  tying  the  nerve,  no  effort  of  the  mind 
will  longer  suffice  to  excite  them  to  action*  In  like 
manner,  if  the  nerves  of  the  lungs  and  stomach  be 
cut  through,  so  as  to  interrupt  the  flow  of  nervous  in- 
fluence, respiration  and  digestion  will  cease,  although 
in  every  other  respect  their  respective  organs  re- 
main uninjured* 

Changes  in  the  quality  Or  amount  of  the  nervous 
influence  transmitted  from  the  brain  to  any  organ 
have  thus  a  direct  power  of  modifying  its  function. 
If,  from  a  peculiar  state  of  the  brain,  the  nervous 
influence  sent  to  the  stomach  be  impaired,  the  tone 
of  that  organ  will  be  also  impaired,  and  digestion 
become  imperfect ;  whereas  if,  in  consequence  of 
pleasing  excitement,  the  nervous  stimulus  be  in- 
creased, a  corresponding  activity  will  be  com- 
municated to  the  stomach,  and  digestion  will  be 
facilitated,  as  is  experienced  after  a  dinner  In 
pleasant  society.  But  if,  by  a  violent  burst  of  pas* 
or  grief,  the  brain  be  inordinately  excited,  $0 
V 


254     INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH. 

as  to  send  forth  a  stimulus  vitiated  in  quality,  the 
stomach  which  receives  it  will  partake  in  the  dis- 
order, and  hence  the  sudden  loathing  and  sickness 
so  often  induced  by  unexpected  bad  news,  vexation, 
or  alarm. 

Something  analogous  to  this  is  still  more  visibly 
exhibited  in  the  case  of  the  muscles.  If  the  mind 
be  active  and  decided,  the  muscles,  receiving  a 
strong  stimulus,  move  with  readiness  and  force  ;  but 
if  the  cerebral  activity  be  impaired  by  bilious  de- 
pression, muscular  action  becomes  slow,  infirm,  and 
indolent :  whereas,  if  the  brain  be  excited  by  strong 
passion,  and  the  stimulus  be  impetuous,  the  move- 
ments instantly  become  energetic  and  decided ;  and, 
if  the  excitement  be  carried  still  farther,  the  regulated 
muscular  contraction  passes  the  limits  of  health,  and 
becomes  involuntary  and  convulsive. 

As  the  quality  of  the  nervous  influence  depends 
on  the  condition  of  the  brain,  that  which  springs 
from  a  brain  of  which  all  the  parts  are  in  sound  and 
vigorous  action  is  the  best.  Mental  indolence  and 
high  mental  excitement  are  alike  inimical  to  bodily 
health ;  and  consequently  our  great  aim  ought  to  be 
to  secure  for  every  mental  power,  moral  as  well  as 
intellectual,  that  equal  and  regular  exercise  from 
which  alone  the  proper  nervous  stimulus  can  spring. 

It  is  indeed  interesting  to  observe  the  various 
effects  of  the  nervous  influence,  according  to  the 
faculties  in  predominant  action  at  the  time  it  is  pro- 
duced. If  the  higher  feelings  have  the  ascendency, 
and  the  more  selfish  propensities  be  merely  suffi- 
ciently active  to  give  force  to  the  character,  without 
exciting  contention  in  the  mind  itself,  the  nervous 
influence  is  the  most  grateful  and  efficient  which 
can  be  imagined  for  sustaining  the  healthy  co-ope- 
ration of  the  whole  body.  This  result  follows, 
because  the  Creator  evidently  designed  such  a  state 
of  mind  to  be  the  best  and  happiest  for  man  himself, 
and  therefore  took  care  to  surround  him  with  every 
motive  to  induce  him  to  enter  into  it 


INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH.     255 

If,  however,  the  lower  feelings  be  in  great  activ- 
ity, and  the  mind  be  at  variance  with  itself,  and 
filled  with  designs  and  emotions  repulsive  to  our 
moral  sentiments ;  or  if  it  be  oppressed  with  grief, 
anxiety,  or  remorse,  the  stimulus  which  it  commu- 
nicates is  far  from  beneficial,  being  no  longer  in 
accordance  with  the  conditions  designed  by  the 
Creator.  It  is  in  such  circumstances,  accordingly, 
that  bad  health  is  so  often  seen  to  arise  from  the 
state  of  the  mind,  and  that  suffering  is  produced 
which  no  art  can  relieve  till  the  primary  cause  be 
removed. 

The  same  result  follows  over-exercise  of  intellect, 
and  the  non-activity  of  the  feelings.  From  the  con- 
centration of  vital  action  in  one  part  of  the  brain, 
the  stomach  and  other  organs  are  unprovided  with 
the  requisite  nervous  stimulus,  and  become  impaired 
in  their  functions ;  and  hence  the  dyspeptic  and 
hypochondriacal  symptoms  which  so  often  render 
life  a  burden  to  literary  men.  Persons  so  situated, 
when  advised  to  attend  to  diet,  often  answer  that  it 
is  in  vain,  and  that,  while  at  times  nothing  can  be 
digested,  at  other  times,  perhaps  within  a  few  hours 
or  days,  nothing  comes  amiss, — the  power  of  diges- 
tion varying  thus  quickly,  according  to  their  mental 
condition.  Whereas,  when  indigestion  arises  from 
a  primary  affection  of  the  stomach,  the  least  devia- 
tion in  the  way  of  indulgence  proves  injurious.  In 
both  instances,  attention  to  diet  is  beneficial,  but  in 
the  one  it  is  less  rigidly  important  than  in  the  other. 

The  influence  of  the  brain  on  the  digestive  organs 
is  so  direct,  that  sickness  and  vomiting  are  among 
the  earliest  symptoms  of  many  affections  of  the 
head,  and  of  wounds  and  injuries  of  the  brain ; 
while  violent  emotions,  intense  grief,  or  sudden 
bad  news  sometimes  arrest  at  once  the  progress 
of  digestion,  and  produce  squeamishness  or  loathing1 
of  food,  although  an  instant  before  the  appetite  was 


25(5     INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON   HEALTH. 

keen.  Narcotics,  the  direct  action  of  which  is  on 
the  brain,  have  a  similar  effect  on  the  stomach. 

The  influence  of  the  mind  and  brain  over  the 
action  of  the  heart  and  lungs  is  familiar  to  every 
one.  The  sighing,  palpitation,  and  fainting,  so  often 
witnessed  as  consequences  of  emotions  of  the  mind, 
are  evidences  which  nobody  can  resist.  Death  itself 
is  not  a  rare  result  of  such  excitement  in  delicately 
organized  persons. 

This  law  of  our  constitution,  whereby  the  regu- 
lated activity  of  both  intellect  and  feeling  is  made 
essential  to  sound  bodily  health,  seems  to  me  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  arrangements  of  an  all-wise 
and  beneficent  Creator.  If  we  shun  the  society  of 
our  fellow-creatures,  and  shrink  from  taking  a  share 
in  the  active  duties  of  life,  mental  indolence  and 
physical  debility  beset  our  path.  Whereas  if,  by 
engaging  in  the  business  of  life  and  taking  an  active 
interest  in  the  advancement  of  society,  we  duly 
exercise  our  various  powers  of  perception,  thought, 
and  feeling ;  we  promote  the  health  of  the  whole 
corporeal  system,  invigorate  the  mind  itself,  and  3t 
the  same  time  experience  the  highest  mental  grati- 
fication of  which  a  human  being  is  susceptible,  viz. 
that  of  having  fulfilled  the  end  and  object  of  our 
being,  in  the  active  discharge  of  our  duties  to  God, 
to  our  fellow-men,  and  to  ourselves.  If  we  neglect 
our  faculties  or  deprive  them  of  their  objects,  we 
weaken  the  organization,  give  rise  to  distressing 
diseases,  and  at  the  same  time  experience  the  bit- 
terest feelings  that  can  afflict  humanity — ennui  and 
melancholy.  The  harmony  thus  shown  to  exist 
between  the  moral  and  physical  world  is  but  another 
example  of  the  numerous  inducements  to  that  right 
conduct  and  activity,  in  pursuing  which  the  Creator 
has  evidently  destined  us  to  find  terrestrial  happi- 
ness. 

The  reader  will  now  understand  why  the  state  of 
the  mind  is  so  influential  in  the  production  and  pro- 


INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH.    257 

gress  of  disease.  In  the  army  this  principle  has 
often  been  exemplified  in  a  very  striking  manner, 
and  on  so  large  a  scale  as  to  put  its  influence  beyond 
a  doubt.  Sir  George  Ballingall  mentions,  in  his 
excellent  lectures  on  Military  Surgery,  that  the 
proportion  of  sick  in  garrison  in  a  healthy  country, 
and  under  favourable  circumstances,  is  about  five 
per  cent.;  but  that,  during  a  campaign,  the  usua 
average  is  nearer  ten  per  cent.  So  marked,  how- 
ever, are  the  preservative  effects  of  cheerfulness  and 
the  excitement  of  success,  that,  according  to  Vaidy, 
the  French  army  cantoned  in  Bavaria,  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Austerlitz,  had  only  109  sick  in  a  division  of 
8000  men,  being  little  more  than  one  in  the  hundred. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  an  army  is  subjected  to 
privations,  or  "  is  discouraged  by  defeat  or  want  of 
confidence  in  its  chiefs"  the  proportion  of  sick  is 
"  of  ten  fearfully  increased"* 

The  same  principle  explains  why  it  is  so  import- 
ant for  the  physician  to  carry  the  feelings  of  the 
patient  along  with  him  in  his  curative  measures.  It 
is  well  known,  for  example,  that  those  who  live  in 
constant  apprehension  of  fever,  cholera,  or  other 
ailment  are  generally  among  its  first  victims  when 
exposed  to  its  cause.  The  reason  is  obvious.  The 
depressing  nervous  influence  resulting  from  the  pain- 
ful activity  of  the  selfish  feelings  affects  all  the 
functions  of  the  body,  and  places  them  on  the  brink 
of  disease,  even  before  any  external  cause  is  in  ope- 
ration ;  and  hence  the  easy  inroad  the  latter  makes 
when  it  comes  into  play. 

So  efficacious,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  more  cheer- 
ful state  of  mind,  from  the  more  healthful  nervous 
influence  which  it  diffuses  through  the  frame,  that 
surprising  recoveries  occasionally  happen,  which 
can  be  ascribed  to  no  other  cause  but  this.  A  sin- 
gular but  instructive  instance  fell  under  the  observa- 

*  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  No.  xxxvi.  p.  430, 
Y2 


258     INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH. 

tion  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  when,  early  in  life,  he 
was  assisting  Dr.  Beddoes  in  his  experiments  on 
the  inhalation  of  nitrous  oxide.  Dr.  Beddoes  having 
inferred  that  the  oxide  must  be  a  specific  for  palsy, 
a  patient  was  selected  for  trial,  and  placed  under  the 
care  of  Davy.  Previously  to  administering  the  gas, 
Davy  inserted  a  small  thermometer  under  the  tongue 
Of  the  patient  to  ascertain  the  temperature.  The 
paralytic  man,  wholly  ignorant  of  the  process  to 
which  he  was  to  submit,  but  deeply  impressed  by 
Dr.  Beddoes  with  the  certainty  of  its  success,  no 
sooner  felt  the  thermometer  between  his  teeth  than 
he  concluded  the  talisman  was  in  operation,  and  in 
a  burst  of  enthusiasm  declared  that  he  had  already 
experienced  the  effects  of  its  benign  influence 
throughout  his  whole  body.  The  opportunity  was 
too  tempting  to  be  lost.  Davy  did  nothing  more, 
but  .desired  his  patient  to  return  on  the  following 
day.  The  same  ceremony  was  repeated,  the  same 
result  followed  ;  and  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight  he  was 
dismissed  cured,  no  remedy  of  any  kind,  except  the 
thermometer,  having  ever  been  used.*  Quacks 
profit  largely  by  taking  advantage  of  this  principle 
of  our  nature ;  and  regular  practitioners  would  do 
well  to  bestow  more  pains  than  they  do  in  assisting 
their  treatment  by  well-directed  moral  influence. 
Baglivi  was  deeply  impressed  with  this  sentiment 
when  he  said,  "  I  can  scarcely  express  how  much 
the  conversation  of  the  physician  influences  even 
the  life  of  his  patient,  and  modifies  his  complaints. 
For  a  physician  powerful  in  speech,  and  skilled  in 
addressing  the  feelings  of  a  patient,  adds  so  much 
to  the  power  of  his  remedies,  and  excites  so  much 
confidence  in  his  treatment,  as  frequently  to  over- 
come dangerous  diseases  with  very  feeble  remedies, 
which  more  learned  doctors,  languid  and  indifferent 

*  Paris's  Life  of  Daw.  p.  51 


INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH.     259 

in  speech,  could  not  have  cured  with  the  best  reme- 
dies that  man  could  produce." 

Every  one,  indeed,  who  has  either  attended  in- 
valids, or  been  an  invalid  himself,  must  often  have 
remarked,  that  the  visit  of  a  kind  and  intelligent 
friend  is  highly  useful  in  dispelling  uneasy  sensa- 
tions, and  in  promoting  recovery  by  increased  cheer- 
fulness and  hope.  The  true  reason  of  this  is  simply, 
that  such  intercourse  interests  the  feelings,  and 
affords  an  agreeable  stimulus  to  several  of  the 
largest  organs  in  the  brain,  and  thereby  conduces 
to  the  diffusion  of  a  healthier  and  more  abundant 
nervous  energy  over  the  whole  system.  The  extent 
of  good  which  a  man  of  kindly  feelings  and  a  ready 
command  of  his  ideas  and  language  may  do  in  this 
way,  is  much  beyond  what  is  generally  believed ; 
and  if  this  holds  in  debility  arising  from  general 
causes,  in  which  the  nervous  system  is  affected,  not 
exclusively,  but  only  as  a  part  of  the  body,  it  must 
hold  infinitely  more  in  nervous  debility  and  in  ner- 
vous disease  ;  for  then,  indeed,  the  moral  manage- 
ment is  truly  the  medical  remedy,  and  differs  from 
the  latter  only  in  this,  that  its  administration  depends 
on  the  physician,  and  not  on  the  apothecary, — on  the 
friend,  and  not  on  the  indifferent  attendant. 

The  powerfully  stimulating  effect  of  mental  ex- 
citement on  the  bodily  functions  is  familiar  to  every 
one,  and  is  duly  noticed  in  the  works  of  the  novelist 
and  poet.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  a  visit  to  a 
watering-place,  or  a  journey  through  an  interesting 
country,  does  more  good  by  the  beneficial  excite- 
ment which  it  gives  to  the  mind  and  brain,  than  by 
all  the  other  circumstances  put  together.  It  is 
indeed  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  medical  depart- 
ments of  both  army  and  navy,  that  the  influence  of 
the  mind  in  preserving  and  restoring  health  is  more 
correctly  appreciated  and  provided  for  than  it  is 
even  in  private  practice.  In  the  late  expeditions  of 
discovery  to  the  Northern  Regions,  the  utmost 


260     INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH. 

attention  was  bestowed  by  the  enlightened  com- 
manders to  keep  up  a  healthful  vivacity  of  intellect 
and  feeling  among  their  men,  by  constant  occupation, 
intellectual  instruction,  the  representation  of  plays, 
masquerades,  and  other  amusing  and  exciting  exer- 
tions ;  and  there  cannot  be  a  doubt,  that  their  re- 
markable immunity  from  disease  was  in  no  small 
degree  owing  to  these  admirable  arrangements :  and 
hence  the  immense  importance  which  attaches  to 
the  selection  of  a  humane  and  considerate  as  well 
as  scientific  commander. 

In  the  second  volume  of  Captain  Basil  Hall's  first 
series  of  Fragments  of  Voyages  and  Travels,  the 
reader  will  find  a  chapter  on  "  The  Effects  of  being 
well  commanded"  which  illustrates, very  amusingly, 
many  of  the  principles  explained  in  the  preceding 
pages.  "  People,"  he  says,  "  who  have  no  acquaint- 
ance with  the  intricacies  of  naval  discipline  can 
scarcely  comprehend  how  vast  a  difference  is  made 
in  the  efficiency  of  a  man-of-war  by  the  character 
of  the  commander." — "Early  in  the  year  1805,  we 
were  made  abundantly  sensible  of  the  truth  of  this 
remark,  by  an  important  change  which  took  place 
in  the  highest  office  on  board.  From  a  state  of  lan- 
guid inefficiency,  we  started  in  a  single  moment 
into  the  most  vigorous  activity,  and  from  being 
almost  the  laughing-stock  of  the  fleet,  for  the  clum- 
siness of  our  gait,  and  the  want  of  success  which 
attended  our  cumbrous  exertions,  we  soon  out- 
stripped them  all,  not  only  in  the  activity,  but  in  the 
useful  result  of  our  services." — (p.  2.) 

The  new  captain  was  a  man  who  knew  his  pro- 
fession, and  possessed  that  decision  of  character 
which  makes  its  weight  instinctively  felt.  Between 
certain  disgrace  and  punishment  to  offenders,  and 
"  high  favour  to  those  who  took  pains  to  do  right, 
the  ship  was  speedily  brought  into  proper  trim. 
Every  thing  now  seemed  alive,  and  moved  smartly  ; 
»K>  time  ran  to  waste  ;  even  the  indolent  and  the  ill- 


INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH.         261 

disposed  found  their  best  interest  in  working  well. 
The  decks  became  cleaner  than  they  had  ever  been 
before  ;  the  people  dressed  themselves  more  tidily  ; 
the  sails  looked  better  furled ;  the  yards  better 
squared  ;  the  complaints  of  inattention  and  drunkenness 
grew  daily  less  frequent,  and  an  air  of  general  happi- 
ness, as  well  as  neiv-born  energy,  spread  itself  over  the 
whole  ship." — "  So  magical  indeed  was  the  effect  of 
this  change,  that  I  dare  swear  we  should  then  have 
engaged  and  beaten  an  enemy,  whom  it  might  not 
have  been  considered  by  any  means  prudent  to  have 
brought  to  action  a  week  before." — (p.  17.) 

Captain  Hall  gives  other  examples  of  the  same 
principle,  and  remarks,  that  in  this  way  the  simple 
fact  of  Nelson  joining  the  fleet  off  Trafalgar  was  al- 
most equivalent  to  double  manning  every  ship  in  the 
line.  The  explanation  which  he  gives  of  the  "  mys- 
terious agency"  by  which  the  genius  of  a  command- 
ing officer  imparts  a  portion  of  its  spirit  to  every  one 
under  his  orders  is  perfectly  philosophical.  "When 
a  person  of  talents  is  placed  under  an  able  com- 
mander, he  feels  confident  that  nothing  he  does  will 
be  passed  without  notice,  and  consequently  that  his 
exertions  must  tell  to  his  advantage,  exactly  in  pro* 
portion  as  their  utility  makes  itself  felt.  This  con- 
sciousness will,  of  course,  stimulate  him  to  fresh 
endeavours  to  excel ;  and,  from  thus  feeling  sure 
that  his  conduct  is  duly  appreciated,  he  has  an  im- 
mediate motive  to  bring  his  whole  strength  into 
play — an  exercise  which  must  ever  produce  good 
results." 

But  "  suppose  the  case  differently  put,  and  let  the 
superior  in  station  be  the  inferior  in  abilities  or  ex- 
perience, or  not  so  zealous  in  the  execution  of  his 
duty  as  the  men  he  commands.  The  situation  of 
the  inferior  is  now  far  from  being  so  independent,  or 
so  well  calculated  to  draw  forth  his  powers,  as  it 
was  in  the  first  case.  The  subordinate  officer  has 
no  longer  the  same  animated  stimulus  to  exertion ; 


262         INFLURNCE    OF    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH. 

for,  his  labours  being  generally  unnoticed,  or  their 
results  unappreciated,  he  is  left  without  much  en- 
couragement to  proceed  in  fresh  endeavours  to 
excel ;  while  his  faculties,  instead  of  improving,  through 
generous  exercise,  are  often  deteriorated  by  the  languid 
manner  in  which  they  are  brought  into  play." — (p.  6.) 

Captain  Hall  justly  observes,  that  the  influence  of 
the  commander  on  men  of  moderate  talents  is  still 
more  striking,  as  they  stand  more  in  need  of  a  stim- 
ulus to  duty.  "  If  a  commander  has  skill  enough  to 
enlist  the  sympathies  of  those  placed  under  his  or- 
ders, they  will  feel  insensibly  drawn  on  to  make 
common  cause  with  him,  and  will  afterward  exert 
themselves  strenuously  to  maintain  that  degree  of 
importance  derived  from  this  implied  companionship 
in  ability  which  they  could  hardly  hope  to  reach 
single-handed." — *'  The  invariable  effect  of  these 
efforts  is  to  improve  the  character.  Such  training 
will  certainly  not  make  a  clever  man  out  of  a  stupid 
one  ;  but  it  may  often  render  a  discontented  or  use- 
less man  of  service  to  himself  and  the  state  :  and, 
instead  of  his  continuing  a  wretched  and  hopeless 
being,  may  convert  him  into  one  who  is  happy  and 
confident  of  success." 

"  I  suspect,  however,  that  no  one  who  has  not  been 
an  eye-witness  of  the  condition  of  a  ship  under  the 
command  of  an  ignorant,  trifling,  or  otherwise  inef- 
ficient captain,  can  have  any  notion  of  the  mischiev- 
ous effects  of  his  misrule,  or  rather  of  his  no  rule. 
Perhaps,  in  the  long-run,  almost  every  degree  of  con- 
sistent severity  is  preferable  to  the  uncertain,  hig- 
gledy-piggledy kind  of  discipline  on  board  a  man-of- 
war  in  what  is  called  slack-order.  The  moderately 
gifted  persons  feeling  that,  in  these  circumstances, 
they  have  no  chance  of  notice  by  any  exertions  of 
their  own,  speedily  degenerate  into  a  sort  of  vege- 
tables, so  incapable  of  any  useful  exertion  that  they 
infest  the  ship  like  the  fungus  called  the  dry-rot. 
This  chaotic  period  is  the  holyday  season  of  the 


INFLUENCE    O*    THE    BRAIN    ON    HEALTH.          263 

scamps  and  skulkers,  who  then  fancy  their  game  the 
surest.  These  fellows  certainly  succeed  in  working 
as  little  as  possible,  and  in  making  those  about  them 
unhappy ;  but,  after  all,  without  any  great  accession 
to  their  own  comfort." 

"  This  system,"  continues  Captain  Hall,  "  dis- 
courages the  cheerful  and  willing  workers  by  the 
oppression  of  its  injustice — a  feeling  which  speedily 
takes  away  or  deadens  some  of  the  best  motives  to 
improvement.  Such  a  captain,  unwilling  to  see 
that  he  himself  is  in  fault,  ascribes  the  evil  to 
others  ;  and,  "  by  his  unfair  censure  of  those  who,  in 
fact,  are  the  most  deserving  of  commendation,  he 
scatters  the  seeds  of  discouragement  over  all  the  dif- 
ferent classes  exposed  to  his  unskilful  handling,  and 
every  thing  falls  into  confusion  worse  confounded." — 
(p.  10.)  The  loss  of  the  French  frigate  Medusa,  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  in  1817,  and  the  tremendous  suf- 
fering which  instantly  ensued  from  the  state  of  an- 
archy and  uproar  which  took  place  among  the  crew, 
are  well  known  to  have  arisen  entirely  from  the  in- 
sufficiency and  headstrong  conceit  of  a  weak  and  ig- 
norant commander,  and  afford  a  strong  contrast  to 
the  admirable  coolness  and  high-toned  moral  feeling 
displayed  on  the  similar  occasion  of  the  wreck  of 
the  Alceste,  on  her  return  from  China  with  Lord 
Amherst,  and  which  also  made  a  deep  impression, 
but  of  a  widely  different  description,  on  the  public 
mind. 

From  the  above  quotations,  the  influence  which 
he  qualities  of  the  commander  may  exert  on  the 
health,  as  well  as  the  discipline,  of  those  under  his 
orders,  may  easily  be  inferred.  So  important,  in- 
deed, are  cheerfulness  and  confidence,  as  conditions 
of  health,  that  if  two  ships  were  to  be  sent  out  to 
circumnavigate  the  globe,  each  equal  to  the  other  in 
every  respect,  except  the  one  being  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  humane,  vivacious,  and  considerate  man, 
and  the  other  of  a  lymphatic,  selfish,  and  tyrannical 


264          SOURCES  OF  BAD  HEALTH. 

commander,  though  both  were  equal  in  talent,  it  te 
quite  certain  that  the  fate  of  the  crews  would  be 
widely  different,  and  that  sickness  would  prevail 
much  more  in  the  one  than  in  the  other, 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Causes  of  had  Health — Not  always  the  Result  of  moral  or  irri- 
moral  Conduct — Nor  of  Accident — But  of  the  Infringement 
of  the  Laws  of  Organization — Proofs  from  past  History — 
^Diminished  Mortality  from  Increase  of  Knowledge,  and  better 
Fulfilment  of  the  Conditions  of  Health — The  Expeditions  of 
Anson  and  Cook  contrasted— Gratifying  Results  of  the  Sana- 
tory Arrangements  of  Ross,  Parry,  and  Franklin— Pulmonary 
Diseases  in  the  Channel  Fleet,  from  Ignorance  of  Physiology 
— Rates  of  Mortality  in  different  Ages  and  Countries — Causes 
of  late  Improvements — Condition  of  wealthier  and  poorer 
Classes  compared — Good  done  by  the  Apprehension  of  Chol- 
era— Influence  of  Habit — Neglect  of  organic  Laws  in  Re- 
cruiting Service — Examples — Conclusion. 

THE  reader  will  now  be  prepared  to  take  a  correct 
view  of  a  question  on  which  it  especially  interests 
us  to  have  true  and  precise  notions.  I  allude  to  the 
real  origin  of  bad  health.  On  this  point  very  vague 
and  contradictory  opinions  are  prevalent  •  and,  as 
our  conduct  in  life  must  necessarily  be  closely  de- 
pendent on  our  views  in  regard  to  this  subject,  I 
cannot  do  better,  before  concluding,  than  devote  a 
chapter  to  its  consideration* 

Setting  aside,  for  the  present,  hereditary  tenden- 
cies to  disease  (which  must  have  begun  at  first  with 
some  progenitor,  from  ordinary  causes,  and  which, 
therefore,  are  not  really  unconnected  with  the  in- 
quiry), bad  health  may  be  regarded  in  three  different 
lights :  FIRST,  As  having  BO  necessary  connexion 
with  our  conduct,  but  as  being  the  result  of  circunv 


SOURCES  OF  BAD  HEALTH.        265 

stances  entirely  beyond  our  knowledge  and  control, 
and  sent  by  a  superintending  Providence,  not  to  urge 
us  to  more  rational  care,  but  to  soften  our  hearts, 
and  warn  us  from  sin  ;  SECONDLY,  As  the  result  of 
accident  alone,  or  of  external  influences  which  we 
can  appreciate,  but  from  which  it  is  impossible  to 
withdraw  ourselves  ;  and,  THIRDLY,  As,  in  every  in- 
stance, the  result  of  the  direct  infringement  of  one  or 
more  of  the  laws  or  conditions  decreed  by  the  Creator 
to  be  essential  to  the  well-being  and  activity  of  every 
bodily  organ,  and  the  knowledge  and  observance  of 
which  are  to  a  great  extent  within  our  own  power. 

According  as  one  or  other  of  those  views  shall  be 
adopted,  the  most  opposite  practical  results  will 
follow.  If  the  first  be  received  as  the  truth,  and 
health  and  sickness  be  viewed  as  dispensed  without 
reference  to  our  bodily  conduct,  but  solely  as  a 
means  of  reclaiming  us  from  sin,  attention  to  our 
moral  and  religious  improvement  alone  will  be  our 
best  protection,  and  any  attempt  to  avert  bad  health, 
by  studying  and  obeying  the  laws  which  regulate 
the  bodily  functions,  will  be  entirely  useless.  If, 
again,  the  second  principle  be  correct,  and  disease 
arise  from  accident  and  from  influences  beyond  our 
control,  then  neither  our  moral  nor  our  bodily  con- 
duct will  avail  us  as  a  protection,  and  our  only  re- 
source will  be  humble  resignation  to  the  will  of  God. 
But  if  the  third  be  true,  and  the  human  frame  be 
constructed  by  the  Creator  on  principles  calculated 
to  carry  on  life  for  seventy  years,  and  if  de  facto  a 
large  proportion  of  the  race  perish  before  attaining 
ten  years  of  age,  chiefly  from  infringing  the  conditions 
on  which  the  due  performance  of  the  various  vital 
functions  depends,  it  then  becomes  an  object  of  great 
interest  to  us  to  study  the  structure  of  our  organs, 
to  discover  the  laws  which  regulate  their  functions, 
and  to  yield  to  those  laws  that  implicit  obedience 
from  which  alone  health  can  spring. 

That  the  strictest  observance  of  the  moral  laws* 
Z 


266  BAD    HEALTH    CAUSED    BY 

and  the  purest  devotion  of  which  human  nature  ia 
capable,  are  insufficient  to  secure  health  to  the  body, 
without  a  simultaneous  observance  of  the  organic 
laws,  is  too  clearly  proved  by  the  instances  already 
adduced,  and  by  the  history  of  mankind,  to  require 
any  demonstration  here.  The  biographies  of  the 
pious  and  excellent  furnish  abundant  examples  to  the 
contrary  ;  while  the  annals  of  crime  afford  numerous 
instances  of  men  of  the  most  depraved  characters 
enjoying  unbroken  health.  If,  indeed,  the  organic 
conditions  be  fulfilled,  the  upright  man  will  enjoy  a 
serenity  of  health  which  the  criminal  can  never 
know  ;  but  the  moral  observance  alone  will  not  avail 
him,  if  he  at  the  same  time  neglect  the  organic  laws. 

In  regard  to  the  second  proposition,  a  little  reflec- 
tion will  satisfy  every  intelligent  mind  that  it  is 
equally  untenable,  and  that  disease  is  not  always  the 
result  of  accident  or  circumstances  which  cannot  be 
modified.  There  are  causes  of  bad  health  against 
which  even  the  most  stupid  and  prejudiced  take 
some  precautions,  and  with  success  ;  and  the  whole 
art  of  medicine  would  be  a  grosser  delusion  than  ever 
romancer  believed  it  to  be,  if  health  were  not  in- 
fluenced by  circumstances  within  our  control.  All 
our  remedies,  and  all  the  effects  of  diet,  clothing, 
and  regimen,  are  indications  of  the  contrary  per- 
suasion. There  are,  indeed,  agencies  from  which 
we  shall  probably  never  be  able  entirely  to  protect 
ourselves.  Such  are  variations  in  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  epidemic  and  contagious  causes,  and 
necessary  exposure,  in  pursuance  of  higher  duties, 
to  known  unhealthy  influences  ;  but,  allowing  for  all 
these,  ample  scope  remains,  within  which  man  may, 
by  an  extension  of  his  knowledge  and  industry, 
provide  himself  with  safe-guards  far  beyond  what 
he  has  ever  yet  done,  or  has  ever  dreamed  of  ac- 
complishing. 

The  third  view,  or  that  which  ascribes  bad  health  to 
the  infringement  of  some  one  or  more  of  the  organic 


INFRINGEMENT  OF  THE  ORGANIC   LAWS.        267 

laws,  thus  presents  itself  as  the  only  one  in  accord- 
ance with  observation  and  past  experience  ;  and. 
after  the  full  exposition  I  have  already  given  of  the 
conditions  of  health  of  various  important  organs,  I 
trust  little  further  proof  will  be  required.  At  the 
same  time,  as  the  principle  is  full  of  practical  value, 
I  will  take  a  short  review  of  some  facts  which  go 
far  to  establish  its  accuracy. 

Considering  that  the  human  frame  is  constructed 
to  endure,  in  many  cases,  for  sixty,  seventy,  or 
eighty  years,  it  must  seem  extraordinary  to  a  re- 
flecting mind  that,  in  some  situations,  one-half  of 
all  who  are  born  should  die  before  attaining  ma- 
turity ;  and  that,  of  1000  infants  born  and  reared  in 
London,  650  die  before  the  age  of  ten  years.  It  is 
impossible  to  suppose  that  such  a  rate  of  mortality 
was  designed  by  the  Creator  as  the  unavoidable  fate 
of  man ;  for,  by  the  gradual  improvement  of  society 
and  a  closer  observance  of  the  organic  laws,  the  pro- 
portion of  deaths  in  early  life  has  already  been  greatly 
reduced.  A  hundred  years  ago,  when  the  pauper  in- 
fants of  London  were  received  and  brought  up  in 
the  workhouses,  nmid  impure  air,  crowding,  and 
want  of  proper  food,  not  above  one  in  twenty- 
four  lived  to  be  a  year  old ;  so  that  out  of  2800 
received  into  them,  2690  died  yearly.  But  when 
the  conditions  of  health  came  to  be  a  little  better 
understood,  and  an  act  of  Parliament  was  obtained 
obliging  the  parish  officers  to  send  the  infants  to 
nurse  in  the  country,  this  frightful  mortality  was 
reduced  to  450,  instead  of  upwards  of  2600 !  Can 
evidence  stronger  than  this  be  required  to  prove 
that  bad  health  frequently  arises  from  causes  which 
man  may  often  be  able  to  discover  and  remove,  and 
which,  therefore,  it  is  his  bounden  duty  to  investigate 
and  avoid  by  every  means  which  Providence  has 
placed  within  his  reach  ? 

The  different  rates  of  mortality  in  crowded  cities 
and  country  villages  equally  demonstrate  the  influ- 


268       KNOWLEDGE   HAS   DIMINISHED    DISEASE. 

ence  of  bad  air,  crowding,  and  imperfect  food,  in 
abridging  life.  Even  in  the  best-managed  commu- 
nities, the  number,  not  only  of  the  sick  of  all  ages, 
but  of  those  who  are  cut  off  in  early  youth,  is  so 
prodigious  as  to  show  that  we  are  far  from  having 
arrived  at  the  maximum  of  health  of  which  the  race 
is  susceptible  ;  while  the  advance  we  have  already 
•nade  gives  us  every  reason  to  hope  that,  by  per- 
severance and  the  extension  of  our  knowledge,  we 
may  continue  to  improve  for  many  centuries  to 
come. 

The  progress  of  knowledge,  and  the  increasing 
ascendency  of  reason,  have  already  delivered  us 
from  many  scourges  which  were  regarded  by  our 
forefathers  as  unavoidable  dispensations  of  an  in- 
scrutable Providence.  In  the  days  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  their  capital  and  territories  were  frequently 
almost  depopulated  by  visitations  of  plague  and 
pestilence,  from  which  the  present  generation  is, 
by  a  stricter  observance  of  the  conditions  of  health, 
entirely  exempted.  In  London,  in  like  manner,  the 
same  contempt  of  cleanliness,  ventilation,  and  com- 
fort which  was  so  fatal  to  the  Romans  produced  simi- 
lar results,  and  swept  off  its  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands,  till  a  fortunate  disaster — the  great  fire — 
came  in  the  place  of  knowledge,  and,  by  destroying 
the  crowded  lanes  and  other  sources  of  impurity, 
which  man  had  shown  himself  so  little  solicitous  to 
remove,  procured  for  its  inhabitants  a  perfect  and  per- 
manent immunity  from  one  of  the  deadliest  forms  of 
disease, — and  taught  them  the  grand  practical  truth, 
that  such  awful  visitations  are  not  wanton  inflictions 
of  a  vengeful  Providence,  but  the  direct  consequences 
of  our  non-observance  of  those  conditions  by  which 
the  various  vital  functions  are  regulated,  and  by 
conforming  to  which  alone  health  can  be  preserved. 
Accordingly,  by  greater  attention  to  proper  food, 
cleanliness,  and  pure  air,  London,  with  its  gigantic 
population,  now  flourishes  in  comparative  security, 


KNOWLEDGE    HAS  DIMINISHED    DISEASE.          269 

and  scarcely  feels  the  ravages  of  an  epidemic  which 
has  inflicted  a  blow  on  some  less  fortunate  cities, 
the  effects  of  which  will  be  long  remembered. 

Small-pox  is  another  scourge  which  annually 
carried  off  its  thousands,  and  from  which  modern 
science  bids  fair  to  protect  us ;  although  half  a  cen- 
tury ago,  any  one  who  might  have  ventured  to  ex- 
press such  an  expectation  would  have  been  ridiculed 
for  his  credulity.  Even  before  Jenner's  immortal 
discovery  of  vaccination,  the  improvement  of  medi- 
cal science  consequent  on  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  human  body  had 
greatly  mitigated  the  fatality  of  small-pox.  For- 
merly the  patients  were  shut  up,  loaded  with  bed- 
clothes, in  heated  rooms,  from  which  every  particle 
of  fresh  air  was  excluded,  and  stimulants  were  ad- 
ministered, as  if  on  purpose  to  hasten  the  fate  of  the 
sick.  But  sounder  views  of  the  wants  of  the  animal 
economy  at  last  prevailed ;  and,  by  the  admission  of 
fresh  air,  the  removal  of  every  thing  heating  or 
stimulating,  and  the  administration  of  cooling  drinks 
and  other  appropriate  remedies,  thousands  were 
preserved  whose  lives  would  have  been  lost  under 
the  mistaken  guidance  of  the  older  physicians. 

As  late  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  ague  was 
so  prevalent  in  many  parts  of  Britain,  where  it  is  now 
never  seen,  that  our  ancestors  looked  upon  an  attack 
of  it  as  a  kind  of  necessary  evil,  from  which  they 
could  neve.*  hope  to  be  delivered.  In  this  instance 
also,  farther  experience  has  shown  that  Providence 
was  not  in  fault.  By  draining  the  land,  removing 
dunghills,  building  better  houses  in  better  situations, 
and  obtaining  better  food  and  warmer  clothing,  it 
appears  that  generations  now  succeed  each  other, 
living  on  the  very  same  soil,  without  a  single  case, 
of  ague  ever  occurring,  where,  a  century  ago,  every 
man,  woman,  and  child  was  almost  sure  to  suffer 
from  it  at  one  time  or  other  of  their  lives ;  thus 
again  showing  how  much  man  may  do  for  the  pres- 


270      CONTRAST   BETWEEN    THE    EXPEDITIONS 

ervation  of  his  health  and  the  improvement  of  his 
condition,  when  his  conduct  is  directed  by  knowledge 
and  sound  principles. 

If  we  wish  for  a  still  more  admirable  proof  of  the 
same  practical  truth,  we  have  only  to  compare  the 
condition  of  our  seamen,  in  maritime  expeditions 
undertaken  a  century  ago,  with  their  lot  in  the 
present  day, — the  expedition  against  Carthagena, 
or  that  of  Anson,  for  instance,  with  those  of  Cook, 
Parry,  and  Ross ;  or  the  health  enjoyed  by  the  crew 
of  the  Valorous,  with  that  of  the  seamen  in  the 
other  vessels  lying  in  the  same  harbour.* 

Anson  set  sail  from  England,  on  13th  September, 
1740,  in  the  Centurion,  of  60  guns  and  400  men, 
accompanied  by  the  Gloucester,  of  50  guns  and  300 
men;  the  Pearl,  of  40 guns  and 250  men;  the  Wager, 
of  28  guns  and  160  men  ;  the  Tryal  sloop,  of  8  guns 
and  100  men,  and  two  victuallers,  one  of  400,  and 
the  other  of  200  tons.  They  had  a  long  run  to  Ma- 
deira, and  thence  to  the  coast  of  Brazil,  where  they 
arrived  on  the  18th  December;  but,  by  this  time, 
the  crews  were  remarkably  sickly,  so  that  many 
died,  and  great  numbers  were  confined  to  their  ham- 
mocks. The  commodore  now  ordered  "six  air- 
scuttles  to  be  cut  in  each  ship,  to  admit  more  air 
between  the  decks"  and  took  other  measures  to  cor- 
rect the  "  noisome  stench  on  board,"  and  destroy 
the  vermin,  which  nuisances  had  become  "  very 
loathsome ;"  "  and,  besides  being  most  intolerably  of- 
fensive, they  were  doubtless,  in  some  sort,  productive 
of  the  sickness  under  which  we  had  laboured." 
Such  is  the  mild  language  used  by  the  chaplain,  Mr. 
Walter,  in  communicating  these  appalling  truths ! 
On  anchoring  at  St.  Catharine's,  80  patients  were 
sent  on  shore  from  the  Centurion  alone,  of  whom 
28  soon  died,  and  the  number  of  sick  increased  to  96. 
Although  this  was  nothing  compared  to  what  took 

*  Vide,  p.  69. 


OF    ANSON    AND    COOK.  271 

pldow  afterward,  it  is  nevertheless  worthy  of  remark, 
for  as  yet  they  had  suffered  no  privations  or  unusual 
hardships,  except  from  contrary  winds.  The  causes 
of  disease  lay  entirely  within  themselves. 

After  a  stormy  and  tedious  navigation  of  three 
months  round  Cape  Horn,  scurvy  carried  off  43  more 
in  the  month  of  April,  and  double  that  number  in 
May,  1741.  Those  who  remained  alive  now  became 
more  dispirited  and  melancholy  than  ever  ;  which 
41  general  dejection  added  to  the  virulence  of  the  disease, 
and  the  mortality  increased  to  a  frightful  degree."  On 
9th  June,  when  in  sight  of  Juan  Fernandez,  the  de- 
bility of  the  people  was  so  great  that,  200  being 
already  dead,  the  lieutenant  could  muster  only  two 
quarter-masters  and  six  foremast  men  able  for  duty 
in  the  middle  watch ;  so  that,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
assistance  of  the  officers,  servants,  &c.  they  would 
have  been  unable  to  reach  the  island, — to  such  a 
condition  was  a  crew  of  400  men  reduced  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months ! 

I  have  noticed  the  cutting  of  holes  for  the  admis- 
sion of  air  between  decks,  and  the  dejection  of  the 
men.  The  narrative  proceeds  to  say,  that  the  com- 
modore's principal  attention  was  now  devoted  to  get- 
ting the  sick  on  shore,  as  they  were  dying  fast  on 
board,  "  the  distemper  being  doubtless  considerably 
augmented  by  the  stench  and  filthiness  in  which  they  lay, 
for  few  could  be  spared  to  look  after  them,  which  ren- 
dered the  ship  extremely  loathsome  between  decks" 
The  officers  suffered  least,  as  being  the  best  fed  and 
best  lodged.  Within  a  year,  out  of  upwards  of  1200 
men,  composing  the  crews  of  the  squadron  who  had 
sailed  from  England,  335  alone  remained. 

The  fate  of  the  Spanish  squadron  which  sailed 
nearly  at  the  same  time  was  still  more  horrible.  The 
Esperanza,  of  50  guns,  lost  392  out  of  450  men,  and 
the  other  ships  almost  as  large  a  proportion.  It  is 
true  that,  in  doubling  Cape  Horn,  they  encountered 
the  severest  weather  and  the  greatest  privations. 


272   EXCELLENT  HEALTH  IN  COOK*S  VOYAGES. 

and  that  their  deplorable  fate  was  aggravated  by 
these  causes.  But  when  we  look  to  the  conduct  of 
later  navigators,  in  circumstances  equally  trying,  it 
is  impossible  to  resist  the  gratifying  conviction,  that 
mortality  like  this  forms  no  part  of  the  designs  of  a 
beneficent  Providence,  and  that,  for  the  best  of  pur- 
poses, our  safety  is  placed,  to  a  great  extent,  within 
the  limits  of  our  own  power.  The  late  memorable 
expeditions  of  Parry,  of  Franklin,  and  more  espe* 
cially  of  Ross,  who,  with  few  resources,  spent  up- 
wards of  four  years  in  the  desolate  regions  of  the 
north,  with  scarcely  any  loss  of  life,  are  examples 
pregnant  with  meaning  to  all  who  are  interested  in 
the  future  progress  of  man. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  climate  and  situation  of 
the  two  parties  were  dissimilar.  In  some  respects 
the  objection  is  well  founded ;  but  Cook's  second 
voyage  round  the  world,  in  1772,  affords  a  parallel 
presenting  so  many  points  of  resemblance  to  that 
of  Anson,  that  no  one  can  reasonably  object  to  their 
comparison.  On  this  occasion,  the  vessels  selected 
were  the  Resolution,  carrying  112  men,  and  the 
Adventure,  with  a  crew  of  81.  Enlightened  by  for- 
mer experience,  Cook  spared  no  pains  to  effect  his 
equipment  in  the  completest  manner,  and  to  lay  in 
such  stores  of  clothing  and  provisions  as  he  knew 
to  be  useful  in  preserving  the  health  of  those  under 
his  command.  Among  these  were  malt,  sour  krout, 
portable  broth,  sugar,  and  wheat.  Care  was  taken 
to  expose  the  men  to  wet  as  little  as  possible,  to 
make  them  shift  themselves  after  being  wet,  and  to 
keep  their  persons,  hammocks,  bedding,  and  clothes  per- 
fectly clean  and  dry.  Equal  attention  was  paid  to 
keep  the  ship  clean  and  dry  between  decks  ;  once  or 
twice  a  week  it  was  aired  with  fires  ;  and  a  fire  was 
also  frequently  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
which  was  of  great  use  in  purifying  the  air  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  ship.  To  the  last  precaution  too 
great  attention  cannot  be  paid  ;  as  the  least  neglect 


EXCELLENT  HEALTH  IN  COOK's  VOYAGES.  273 

occasions  a  putrid  and  disagreeable  smell  below 
which  nothing  but  fires  can  remove.  Fresh  water, 
vegetables,  and  fresh  provisions  were  also  eagerly 
sought  for  at  every  opportunity ;  and  these  it  was 
Captain  Cook's  practice  to  oblige  his  people  to  make 
use  of  by  his  own  example  and  authority.  The  re- 
sults of  these  measures  we  shall  now  see. 

The  two  ships  sailed  on  13th  July,  1772.  To- 
wards the  end  of  August,  when  advancing  towards 
the  south,  the  rain  "  poured  down,  not  in  drops  but 
i.i  streams ;  and  the  wind  at  the  same  time  being 
variable  and  rough,  the  people  were  obliged  to  attend 
so  constantly  upon  the  deck,  that  few  of  them 
escaped  being  completely  soaked ;"  but  although 
rain  is  a  great  promoter  of  sickness  in  warm  cli- 
mates, the  airing  by  fires  between  decks,  and  the 
other  precautions,  were  so  effectual,  that,  on  arriv- 
ing at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  only  one  man  was  on 
the  sick-list;  whereas  we  have  seen  that,  after  a 
similar  voyage,  the  Centurion  arrived  on  the  coast 
of  Brazil  with  80  sick,  of  whom  28  soon  died.  As 
we  proceed,  the  contrast  becomes  still  more  strik- 
ing. On  22d  November,  Cook  sailed  from  the  Cape 
in  search  of  a  southern  continent.  On  the  29th,  a 
violent  storm,  attended  with  hail  and  rain,  came  on, 
and  caused  the  loss  of  most  of  their  live-stock  ;  and 
a  sudden  transition  took  place  from  warm  and  mild 
to  extremely  cold  and  wet  weather,  which  was  se- 
verely felt  by  the  people.  On  10th  December  they 
met  with  islands  of  ice ;  and,  from  that  time  till  the 
middle  of  March,  continued  their  search  for  land 
with  unremitting  diligence,  amid  cold,  hardships, 
and  dangers,  such  as  we  can  form  a  very  imperfect 
idea  of;  and,  at  last,  on  26th  March,  after  being  117 
days  at  sea,  during  which  they  had  sailed  3660 
leagues,  they  came  to  anchor  in  Dusky  Bay,  New- 
Zealand.  "  After  so  long  a  voyage,"  says  Dr.  Kip- 
pis,  from  whose  Life  of  Cook  these  particulars  are 
taken,  "  in  a  high  southern  latitude,  it  might  cer* 


274  EXCELLENT  HEALTH  IN  COOK*S  VOYAGES. 

tainly  have  been  expected  that  many  of  Captain 
Cook's  people  would  be  ill  of  scurvy.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  case.  So  salutary  were  the  effects 
of  the  sweetwort  and  several  articles  of  provision, 
and  especially  of  the  frequent  airings  and  sweetening 
of  the  ship,  that  there  was  only  one  man  on  board 
who  could  be  said  to  be  much  afflicted  with  the  dis- 
ease ;  and  even  in  that  man  it  was  chiefly  occa- 
sioned by  a  bad  habit  of  body,  and  a  complication 
t)f  other  disorders." 

Can  any  thing  be  conceived  more  demonstrative 
of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  investigating 
and  obeying  the  laws  of  health,  than  these  splendid 
results,  when  contrasted  with  those  on  board  of  the 
Centurion  ?  In  the  Resolution,  cheerful  activity, 
cleanliness,  dry  pure  air,  adequate  clothing,  and  a 
suitable  regimen  were  found  to  carry  man  unscathed 
through  hardships  and  exposure,  which,  in  the  Cen- 
turion, from  neglect  of  the  same  protective  means, 
were  severe  enough  to  sweep  off  a  large  proportion 
of  her  crew.  And,  as  if  on  purpose  to  place  the 
efficacy  of  these  measures  beyond  a  doubt,  it  ap- 
pears, that,  in  the  month  of  July,  1773,  the  Adven- 
ture had  many  sick,  and  twenty  of  her  best  men  in- 
capable of  duty  from  scurvy  and  flux,  when  the 
Resolution,  with  a  larger  crew,  had  only  three  men 
sick,  and  only  one  of  them  from  scurvy.  This  dif- 
ference in  the  state  of  health  of  the  two  ships  was 
distinctly  traced  to  the  crew  of  the  Adventure  having 
eaten  few  or  no  vegetables  when  in  Queen  Char- 
lotte's Sound,  while,  on  board  of  the  Resolution, 
Cook  was  most  particular  in  enforcing  attention  to 
this  part  of  their  dietetic  regimen. 

By  thi?  admirable  care  and  unwearied  watchful- 
ness on  the  part  of  Cook  and  his  officers,  the  Reso- 
lution performed  a  voyage  of  three  years  and  eigh- 
teen days,  through  all  climates,  from  52°  north  to  71° 
south,  with  the  loss  of  only  one  man  by  disease  out 
of  112 !  And  in  his  last  voyage,  so  efficaciously 


RESULTS    IN    THE    NORTHERN    EXPEDITIONS.    275 

Were  the  same  means  put  in  practice,  that  his  ship 
was  brought  home,  after  an  absence  of  four  years, 
Without  the  loss  of  a  single  man  by  disease  ! 

Similar  results  were  obtained  by  the  able  com- 
manders of  our  more  recent  expeditions  to  the 
Northern  Regions.  The  Fury  and  Hecla  were,  at 
one  time,  no  less  than  twenty-seven  months  entirely 
dependent  on  their  own  resources,  before  scurvy  began 
to  make  its  appearance ;  and  at  the  end  of  2*H 
months,  both  ships  returned  home  (in  September, 
1823)  .with  the  loss  of  only  five  men, — a  result 
Which,  a  century  ago,  could  hardly  have  occurred, 
and  which,  even  at  the  present  day,  is  a  remark- 
able indication  of  the  talent  and  humanity  of  the 
officers  by  whom  it  was  effected. 

Nothing,  in  fact,  could  have  been  better  devised 
than  the  means  practised  in  these  expeditions  to 
preserve  the  health  of  the  people ;  and  did  my  limits 
permit  it,  I  might  illustrate  almost  every  principle 
in  this  volume  by  a  reference  to  its  actual  efficacy 
as  displayed  in  these  voyages.  Not  only  were  the 
conditions  of  health  attended  to  as  regarded  the 
skin,  the  muscles,  the  bones,  the  lungs,  and  the 
digestive  organs ;  but  the  health  of  the  all-import- 
ant nervous  system  was  sedulously  provided  for  by 
the  constant  and  cheerful  occupation  of  the  people 
in  their  various  duties  and  amusements ;  and  so 
judiciously  were  these  planned,  that  a  spirit  of  life 
and  activity  extremely  favourable  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  health  was  constantly  kept  up,  and  had,  no 
doubt,  great  influence  in  producing  that  concord 
and  unity  of  feeling  among  them  which  were  so 
conspicuous  amid  all  their  privations. 

In  looking  forward  to  a  still  greater  diminution  of 
disease  in  the  human  family,  it  is  cheering  to  fix 
attention  to  what  has  been  thus  already  accom- 
plished by  the  hand  of  authority.  Had  the  same 
individuals  who  circumnavigated  the  globe  with 
Cook,  or  braved  the  northern  winters  with  Rosa 


276          DISEASE    IN    CHANNEL    FLEET   FROM 

and  Parry,  been  left  for  the  same  number  of  yeafs 
to  undergo  the  ordinary  vicissitudes  of  life  at  home, 
unrestrained  in  their  inclinations  and  conduct  by 
the  constantly  operating  and  beneficent  influence 
of  a  superior  mind,  it  is  morally  certain  that  dis- 
ease and  death  would  have  made  greater  havoc 
among  \hern  than  actually  occurred  amid  physical 
privations  and  sufferings  much  greater  than  they 
were  likely  to  have  encountered  at  home.  Hence 
the  obvious  and  pressing  necessity  which  exists  of 
diffusing  widely  among  society  that  species  of  know- 
ledge which  has  proved  beneficial  in  the  hands  of 
those  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  possess  it.  If 
human  health  and  happiness  may  be  thus  effectually 
promoted  by  increased  attention  to  the  conditions 
which  regulate  the  vital  and  animal  functions,  no- 
thing can  be  more  useful  than  to  communicate  ta 
every  intelligent  being  such  a  measure  of  know- 
ledge as  will  enable  him  to  do  that  for  his  own 
safety  and  improvement  which  government  now 
does  for  those  whose  services  it  requires. 

With  these  successful  and  cheering  results  of 
knowledge,  it  will  be  instructive  to  contrast  the 
fatal  influence  of  ignorance  in  a  situation  where 
knowledge  might  have  been  effectual  in  preserving 
life  and  sparing  suffering.  I  shall  take  the  example 
from  an  early  work  of  Dr.  James  Johnson,*  wha 
has  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject  of  health 
and  the  causes  by  which  it  is  affected,  and  whose 
work  contains  much  valuable  matter  connected  with 
hygiene,  as  well  as  with  the  history  and  cure  of  dis- 
ease. In  treating  of  exercise,  and  the  evils  of  its 
excess.  Dr.  Johnson  says,  "  I  shall  exemplify  this 
reasoning  by  an  instructive  lesson.  During  the  late 
war,  it  was  observed,  that  in  its  earlier  periods  fever, 
fluxes,  and  scurvy  made  the  greatest  havoc  ;  while, 
in  its  middle  and  ulterior  periods,  these  diseases 

*  On  the  Influence  of  the  Atmosphere  on  the  Health  and 
Functions  of  the  Human  Frame,  &c.    8vo,  2d  edition,  p.  193. 


IGNORANCE    OF    THE    HUMAN   BODY.          277 

almost  disappeared,  and  pneumonia  (inflammation 
of  the  lungs),  with  its  too  frequent  consequence, 
PHTHISIS,  became  infinitely  more  prevalent  and  fatal. 
The  facts  were  apparent  to  all,  but  the  causes  few 
could  divine.  Some  of  our  chymical  wiseacres  at- 
tributed the  pneumonic  diathesis  to  the  lime-juice 
served  out ;  but  this  hypothesis  need  not  detain  us, 
for  I  think  a  more  rational  explanation  can  be  offered. 
As  the  period  of  warfare  was  lengthened  out,  dis- 
cipline gradually  became  more  perfect,  and,  at  length 
attained  its  acme.  Every  evolution  was  now  per- 
formed with  a  rapidity  and  precision  that  seemed 
the  effect  almost  of  magic.  All  machinery  and  ap- 
paratus were  not  only  so  arranged  as  to  give  human 
power  its  greatest  force  and  facility  of  application, 
but  human  strength  was  put  to  its  ultimatum  of  ex- 
ertion, and  every  muscular  fibre  of  the  frame  called 
into  furious  action,  during  each  manoeuvre  of  navi- 
gation or  war.  Thus,  in  exercising  great  guns,  the 
heaviest  pieces  of  artillery  were  made  to  fly  out  and 
in,  or  wheel  round,  with  almost  the  celerity  of  a 
musket  in  the  hands  of  a  fugleman.  The  most  pon- 
derous anchors  were  torn  from  their  beds  with 
astonishing  velocity  ;  while  the  men  were  often  seen 
lying  about  the  decks  breathless  and  exhausted  after 
such  ultra-human  exertions !" 

"  But  reefing  and  furling  sails  were  still  worse. 
Here,  as  in  all  other  operations,  there  was  a  constant 
struggle  against  time.  The  instant  that  the  word 
"aloft"  was  given,  the  men  flew  up  the  shrouds  with 
such  agility,  that,  by  the  time  they  were  on  the 
yards,  the  respirations  were  nearer  fifty  than  fifteen 
in  a  minute !  In  this  state  of  anhelation  they  bent 
across  the  yards,  and  exerted  every  atom  of  mus- 
cular energy  in  dragging  up  the  sails  and  securing 
the  reef-lines,  while  the  thorax  was  strained  and 
compressed  up  against  the  unyielding  wood !  What 
were  the  consequences  ?  The  air-cells  were  fre- 
quently torn ;  blood  extravasated  :  and  the  origins 
A  a 


278          DIMINISHED    MORTALItY    FROM    THE 

of  cough  and  hemoptoes  continually  laid.  The  lungs 
were  now  in  a  proper  state  for  receiving  the  im- 
pression of  aerial  vicissitudes ;  and  constant  ex- 
posure to  night  air,  to  rain,  and  every  inclemency 
of  the  season,  soon  evolved  the  long  black  catalogue 
of  pulmonic  and  phthisical  maladies,  which  swept  off 
our  men  in  vast  numbers,  to  the  no  small  surprise  of  the 
officers,  who  could  not  divine  the  cause  of  this  new  and 
destructive  enemy. 

"But  it  was  not  the  lungs  alone  that  suffered 
here.  The  central  organ  of  circulation  bore  a  part 
of  the  onus,  and  a  host  of  anomalous  and  otherwise 
inexplicable  symptoms  were  produced,  which  com- 
pletely puzzled  the  naval  practitioners,  who  rarely 
suspected  any  lesion  of  the  heart.  These  last 
affections  both  aggravated,  and  were  in  their  turn 
aggravated  by,  the  depressing  passions  engendered 
during  the  long  confinement  on  ship-board  and  sepa- 
ration from  friends  and  native  home," 

I  need  hardly  stop  to  point  out  to  what  extent  the 
fatal  results  above  mentioned  might  have  been  pre- 
vented, had  the  officers  been  possessed  even  of  a 
superficial  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  respiration 
and  of  muscular  action.  A  perusal  of  the  chapters 
on  these  subjects  will  enable  the  reader  to  judge 
for  himself,  and  to  determine  whether  the  cause  of 
the  destruction  was  really  difficult  to  be  divined. 
Dr.  Johnson,  it  may  be  mentioned,  has  the  Channel 
and  North  Sea  fleets  chiefly  in  view  in  his  re- 
marks. 

Increased  attention  to  the  organic  laws  has 
greatly  reduced  the  annual  rate  of  mortality  in 
Europe,  even  within  the  last  forty  years,  and  it 
cannot  be  supposed  that  farther  improvement  is  im- 
practicable. Dr.  Hawkins,  in  his  Medical  Statistics, 
states,  that  in  1780  the  annual  mortality  in  England 
and  Wales  was  1  in  40 ;  in  1790  it  was  1  in  45 ;  in 
1801  it  was  1  in  47 ;  in  1811,  1  in  50 ;  and  in  1821  it 
had  sunk  so  low  as  1  in  58.  In  cities,  the  diminution 


PROGRESS    OF    KNOWLEDGE:.  279 

is  still  more  remarkable.  In  London,  80  years  ago, 
the  annual  mortality  was  1  in  20 ;  it  is  now  as  1  in 
40.  In  Manchester,  Glasgow,  and  other  places,  a 
similar  improvement  has  taken  place ;  but,  in  some 
instances,  the  decrement  in  the  rate  of  mortality 
has  been  so  much  exaggerated  that  the  deaths  are 
stated  at  only  1  in  74 — a  proportion  which  is  alto- 
gether incredible  as  occurring  in  any  community. 

In  France,  the  average  mortality  is  1  in  40;  in 
Austria,  1  in  38;  in  Russia,  1  in  41;  and  in  the 
United  States,  1  in  40 ;  whereas  it  is  rated  by  Hum- 
boldt  as  1  in  30  in  South  America.  In  Paris  it  is 
rated  1  in  32. 

From  the  greater  accuracy  with  which  statistical 
returns  are  obtained  and  preserved  in  France  and 
on  the  Continent,  and  the  inadequate  means  which 
we  have  in  this  country  of  procuring  correct  tables, 
as  well  as  the  great  disparity  between  the  results 
obtained  here  and  abroad,  there  is  every  reason  to 
suspect,  that  in  England,  sources  of  error  have  been 
overlooked,  and  that  the  rates  are  consequently  too 
favourable.  It  is  difficult  to  believe,  for  example, 
that  with  us  the  rate  of  mortality  should  be  so  low 
as  1  in  58 ;  when  in  France,  Russia,  and  Austria  it 
is  ascertained  to  be  so  high  as  1  in  40,  1  in  41,  and  1 
in  38.  Still,  however,  the  returns,  such  as  they  are, 
show  a  manifest  improvement  in  the  value  of  life 
within  the  last  forty  years,  which  can  be  ascribed 
only  to  a  greater  degree  of  comfort  among  the 
people,  and  a  more  skilful  treatment  of  their  dis- 
eases. 

The  principle  which  I  am  advocating  is  established 
even  by  many  of  the  continental  returns,  which  are 
more  trust-worthy  than  our  own.  In  France,  the 
annual  deaths  in  1781  were  1  in  29 ;  in  1802,  1  in  30, 
and  in  1823,  1  in  40  ;  and  in  Paris  the  mortality  has 
diminished,  in  seventy  years,  from  1  in  25  to  1  in 
32 ;  so  that,  though  we  neglect  altogether  the  more 
than  doubtful  statements  as  to  Manchester  and  other 


280      COMPARATIVE  HEALTH  IN  THE 

places,  with  an  annual  mortality  of  only  1  in  60  or 
70,  evidence  enough  exists  to  prove  the  proposition 
that  health  is  intimately  connected  with,  and  de- 
pendent on,  man's  own  conduct ;  and  that  when  the 
conditions  of  health  shall  be  better  understood,  we 
may  reasonably  look  forward  to  still  brighter  re- 
sults. 

It  was  very  common  at  one  time  to  eulogize  the 
simple  food  and  hardy  habits  of  the  poor  and  labour- 
ing classes  as  eminently  conducive  to  health,  when 
contrasted  with  the  debilitating  effects  of  the  cares 
and  luxuries  of  the  rich.  Experience  unfortunately 
reverses  the  picture,  and  shows,  by  arithmetical 
arguments,  that  the  excess  of  work  and  the  priva- 
tions to  which  the  poor  are  habitually  exposed,  pro- 
duce a  much  higher  rate  of  mortality  among  them, 
especially  in  seasons  of  scarcity  or  commercial  de- 
pression, than  among  the  richer  classes  of  society  ; 
and  the  same  thing  is  farther  proved  by  the  fact,  that 
in  the  army  and  navy  the  officers  almost  invariably 
suffer  less  than  the  men  from  changes  of  climate, 
and  from  the  fatigues  and  calamities  of  war.  In 
France,  the  mortality  among  the  infants  of  the 
poorer  classes  is  said  to  be  nearly  double  that  oc- 
curring among  those  in  more  affluent  circumstances ; 
while,  in  the  wealthier  departments,  the  average  of 
life  is  twelve  years  greater  than  in  those  which  are 
poor  In  London,  according  to  Dr.  Granville's  tables, 
only  542  infants  out  of  every  1000  births  among  the 
poor  survive  their  second  year ;  and  in  Paris,  also, 
the  mortality  in  the  quarter  inhabited  by  the  work- 
ing classes  is  nearly  double  that  which  occurs 
among  the  more  wealthy. 

If,  as  seems  to  be  the  case,  a  corresponding  dis- 
proportion occur  between  the  rates  of  mortality  in 
the  different  classes  of  society  in  Great  Britain,  it  sug- 
gests some  most  important  considerations,  the  first  of 
which  is  the  simple  question,  Whether  that  condition 
of  the  lower  orders  can  be  regarded  as  eminently 


DIFFERENT    CLASSES    OF    SOCIETY.  281 

prosperous  or  natural,  which  subjects  them  to  be 
cut  off  by  death  so  many  years  before  the  term 
allotted  to  those  by  whom  they  are  employed  1  It 
also  illustrates,  strikingly,  what  I  have  said  about 
bad  health  being  more  frequently  the  result  of  grad- 
ual causes  long  in  unperceived  operation,  than  of  any 
sudden  or  accidental  exposure  ;  and  proves  that  a 
mode  of  life  or  degree  of  labour  is  not  to  be  rashly 
pronounced  harmless,  merely  because  its  injurious 
effects  are  not  immediately  seen,  and  because  years 
may  elapse  before  it  breaks  down  the  constitution. 
It  is  blindness  to  the  perception  of  this  principle 
which  still  misleads  mankind,  and  renders  them  in- 
sensible to  the  agency  of  numerous  hurtful  influences 
from  which,  by  a  little  exertion,  they  might  easily 
be  relieved. 

Much  angry  discussion  lately  took  place  as  to  the 
reality  of  the  mischief  inflicted  by  the  long  hours 
and  unremitting  exertion  required  in  our  factories 
and  spinning-mills,  where  an  unerring  test  might 
easily  have  been  found.  If  those  who  contended 
that  the  hours  of  labour  were  not  too  long,  either 
for  the  children  or  adults,  could  have  produced  evi- 
dence to  show  that,  among  operatives,  the  average 
of  life  was  equally  high  as  among  the  apparently 
more  favoured  classes,  there  would  have  been,  at 
once  and  for  ever,  an  end  of  the  argument ;  while, 
had  the  result  proved  different,  the  system  of  labour 
might  justly  have  been  deemed  oppressive  in  the 
precise  ratio  in  which  the  mortality  among  the  ope-  j 
ratives  exceeded  that  among  their  wealthier  coun- 
trymen. No  criterion  could  be  so  infallible  as  the 
one  now  proposed ;  and  if  government  possessed 
the  means  of  obtaining  accurate  returns,  it  seems  to 
me  that  the  expense  of  procuring  them  would  be 
well  bestowed,  as,  whatever  might  be  the  result,  it 
could  not  fail  to  produce  greater  harmony  of  views 
and  purpose  than  now  unhappily  prevails  between 
the  different  classes  of  society. 


J82    GOOD  DONE  BY  APPREHENSION  OF  CHOLERA. 

Every  thing  which  tends  strongly  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  conditions  which  influence  public  and 
individual  health  is  calculated  to  do  great  good  to 
the  community.  In  this  point  of  view  I  am  dis- 
posed to  consider  the  visitation  of  cholera  to  the 
British  Isles  rather  as  one  of  those  remarkable  in- 
stances in  which  a  beneficent  Providence  brings 
good  out  of  evil,  and  converts  an  apparent  calamity 
into  a  positive  blessing,  than  as  the  public  scourge 
which  it  has  been  generally  proclaimed.  True  it 
is,  that  many  individuals  have  perished,  and  others 
suffered  by  it  in  their  affections,  and  in  their  worldly 
circumstances  ;  but  I  question  if  any  thing  short  of 
the  dread  which  cholera  produced,  could  have  com- 
bined all  classes  so  efficiently  and  ardently  in  their 
efforts  to  discover  and  remove  every  thing  in  the 
condition  of  the  poor  and  labouring  portions  of  the 
community,  which  could  prove  detrimental  to  health. 
In  the  season  of  apparent  danger,  the  importance  of 
cleanliness,  ventilation,  warmth,  clothing,  and  nour- 
ishment as  preservatives  of  health,  not  only  became 
manifest  to  minds  on  which  nothing  else  could  have 
made  an  impression,  but  their  experienced  efficacy 
gave  an  impetus  to  the  exertions  of  the  lower  orders 
in  their  own  behalf,  which  will  continue  to  be  pro- 
ductive of  good,  long  after  the  cause  from  which  it 
sprung  shall  be  forgotten. 

The  comparative  exemption  of  the  wealthier 
classes  from  cholera  is  itself  sufficient  to  show  how 
much  it  is  in  the  power  of  man,  by  the  proper  exer- 
cise of  reason  in  the  application  of  his  knowledge, 
to  obviate  the  dangers  to  which  his  health  is  ex- 
posed ;  how  closely  his  bodily  welfare  is  dependent 
on  his  own  conduct  and  external  situation ;  and  how 
very  little,  comparatively,  it  is  the  result  of  circum- 
stances which  he  cannot  control  or  modify.  In 
fact,  every  one  who  has  investigated  the  subject 
with  attention  will  readily  testify,  that,  but  for  the 
establishment  of  soup-kitchens,  the  supplies  of  warm 


INFLUENCE    OF    HABIT.  283 

clothing,  and  the  whitewashing-,  cleaning,  and  ven- 
tilating of  the  houses  of  the  poor  classes,  before  and 
during  the  epidemic,  a  much  greater  number  would 
have  fallen  victims  to  its  ravages.  And  it  is  conso- 
ling to  know,  that  even  those  who  regard  such  visi- 
tations as  direct  inflictions  of  a  vengeful  Providence, 
and  as  nowise  connected  with  mere  neglect  of  the 
laws  of  health,  were,  nevertheless,  not  the  least 
active  in  enforcing  and  superintending  the  removal 
of  every  external  cause  of  disease,  and  promoting 
the  comforts  and  supplying  the  wants  of  the  needy 
and  destitute  ;  so  that,  whatever  differences  in  mere 
belief  there  might  be,  all  parties  were  content  to  act 
as  if  the  Creator  had  intended  the  health  of  the 
race  to  depend,  in  a  very  high  degree,  on  the  care 
which  was  taken  to  fulfil  the  conditions  which  he 
has  decreed  to  be  essential  to  the  due  action  and 
preservation  of  the  various  bodily  organs. 

Many  individuals  exist  who,  from  hereditary  de- 
ficiencies, can  scarcely  attain  tolerable  health,  even 
with  the  best  care  ;  and  many  more  are  to  be  met 
with,  who  are  exposed  to  bad  health  from  the  hurt- 
ful nature  of  the  professions  in  which  they  are  en- 
gaged. Many  suffer,  also,  from  vicissitudes  of  wea- 
ther and  other  causes,  which  we  may  never  be  able 
entirely  to  guard  against ;  but  all  these  united  are 
few,  when  compared  to  the  number  of  those  whose 
health  is  ruined  by  causes  capable  of  removal  or 
of  modification,  and  to  which  they  are  now  exposed 
from  ignorance  of  their  nature,  from  apathy,  or  from 
the  want  of  the  comforts  and  necessaries  of  life. 
If  I  have  succeeded  in  calling  attention  to  this  im- 
portant truth,  the  great  object  of  these  pages  will 
be  accomplished ;  and  I  cannot  help  repeating  the 
remark  already  made  more  than  once,  that  health  ?> 
more  frequently  undermined  by  the  gradual  operation 
of  constant  though  unperceived  causes,  than  by  any 
great  and  marked  exposures  of  an  accidental  kind,  and 
is,  consequently,  more  effectually  to  be  preserve^- 


284  INFLUENCE    OF    HABIT. 

by  a  judicious  and  steady  observance  of  the  organic 
laws  in  daily  life,  tban  by  exclusive  attention  to 
any  particular  function  to  the  neglect  of  all  the 
rest. 

It  may  be  said  that  I  allow  nothing  for  the  in- 
fluence of  habit  in  rendering  situations  and  causes 
comparatively  innocuous,  which  were  at  first  dan- 
gerous. It  is  quite  true  that  the  human  constitution 
possesses  a  power  of  adapting  itself,  within  certain 
limits,  to  a  change  of  circumstances ;  but  it  is  not 
less  true,  that  sudden  and  extreme  changes  often 
destroy  health  and  life  before  the  system  can  adapt 
itself  to  the  exigency,  and  that  after  making  the 
most  ample  allowance  for  this  source  of  safety,  the 
protection  which  it  affords  against  the  active  causes 
of  disease  is  comparatively  trifling. 

Where  the  change  is  sudden,  as  in  passing  from 
*  temperate  to  a  tropical  climate,  or  even  from  very 
*ne  to  very  inconstant  weather,  the  consequences  to 
ealth  are  well  known  to  be  highly  injurious.  But 
Inhere  it  is  gradual  and  not  extreme  in  degree,  as  in 
passing  from  winter  to  summer,  health  is  not  much 
endangered,  because  the  system  has  time  to  accom- 
modate itself  to  its  new  circumstances.  Different 
organs  predominate  in  activity  in  different  climates 
and  seasons,  and  time  is  thus  required  to  admit  of 
the  requisite  changes  taking  place,  without  disturb- 
ing the  general  balance  of  the  circulation.  In  hot 
countries,  for  example,  the  skin  predominates  greatly 
in  activity  in  comparison  with  the  kidneys  ;  whereas, 
in  a  cold  country  the  case  is  precisely  reversed.  If, 
therefore,  a  sudden  transition  be  made  from  the  one 
to  the  other  without  due  preparation,  the  rapid 
change  in  the  distribution  of  the  blood  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  internal  organs,  or  from  the  latter  to  the 
surface,  consequent  on  such  change,  is  likely  to  be 
attended  with  danger;  although  the  same  change 
gradually  effected  would  be  unattended  with  any  in- 
jurious results. 


INFLUENCE    OF    HABIT.  285 

If,  again,  the  change  be  from  a  healthy  situation 
to  one  only  a  little  less  favourable,  the  consequences 
to  the  system  will  be  also  gradual  and  progressive. 
No  immediate  injury  to  health  may  be  apparent, 
and  the  body  may  be  said  to  adapt  itself  to  the  cir- 
cumstances, but,  in  reality,  health  will  be  lowered  in 
tone,  and  life  shortened,  in  exact  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  the  injurious  exposure,  and  the  state  of 
the  system  at  the  time.  Individuals  of  a  peculiar 
constitution  may  live  long,  but  the  average  of  health 
and  life  will  be  positively  lowered, — a  fact  which 
shows  that  the  apparent  exception  is  more  a  fallacy 
than  a  reality,  and  that,  c&teris  paribus,  the  highest 
health  and  greatest  vigour  will  always  be  on  the  side  of 
those  who  make  the  nearest  approach  to  the  fulfilment  of 
the  organic  laws. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  glaring  perversion  of  logic  and 
reason  to  infer  that  we  may  safely  rest  satisfied 
with  a  limited  portion  of  evil,  on  the  plea  that  the 
constitution  will  adapt  itself  to  its  presence.  The 
argument  ought  to  be  turned  in  exactly  the  opposite 
direction.  If  the  constitution  possesses  this  power 
of  adaptation  to  the  extent  supposed,  it  becomes 
doubly  incumbent  on  us  to  have  it  always  surrounded 
with  beneficial  influences,  seeing  that,  when  the  laws 
of  health  shall  be  fulfilled,  the  same  tendency  to 
adaptation  will  then  operate  with  equal  force  in 
permanently  ameliorating  the  constitution.  In 
every  point  of  view  it  is,  therefore,  an  object  of 
much  consequence  to  us  to  become  acquainted 
with  and  to  obey  all  the  laws  which  regulate  the 
functions  of  the  human  body. 

It  would  be  easy,  were  it  consistent  with  the 
limits  and  purpose  of  the  present  volume,  to  show 
that  although  great  advances  have  been  made  of 
late  years,  both  in  physiological  knowledge  and  in 
its  applications  to  the  advancement  of  human  hap- 
piness, many  of  the  usages  current  in  society,  and 
many  of  the  practices  resorted  to  in  education,  are 


286       NEGLECT  OF  ORGANIC  LAWS 

still  far  from  being  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  the 
human  constitution,  and  that  much  good  may  be 
done  by  diffusing  among  the  reflecting  portion  of 
mankind  more  accurate  notions  of  the  structure  and 
uses  of  the  various  bodily  organs,  and  of  the  con- 
ditions required  for  their  healthy  action.  Illustra- 
tions in  proof  of  this  position,  drawn  from  individ- 
ual cases,  may  be  cavilled  at  as  incomplete,  or  re- 
garded as  accidental  coincidences ;  but  when  the 
principle  is  exhibited  in  active  operation  on  a  large 
scale,  minor  qualifications  fall  into  the  shade,  and 
leave  the  evidence  absolutely  unassailable.  On  this 
account  I  prefer  selecting  an  example  from  the  rec- 
ords of  the  army,  both  as  being  striking  in  its  fea- 
tures, and  as  being  one  in  which  the  public  interest 
is  deeply  involved. 

A  few  years  ago,  young  growing  lads  were  uni- 
formly selected  for  the  army  in  preference  to  men 
of  a  mature  age,  on  the  supposition  that',  because 
their  habits  were  not  formed,  they  could  be  more 
easily  converted  into  good  soldiers  than  if  taken  a 
few  years  later.  Many  officers  still  entertain  and 
act  on  this  opinion,  and  the  period  at  which,  by  law, 
liability  to  military  service  commences  in  this  coun- 
try, remains  fixed  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  although 
it  has  been  raised  to  twenty  by  most  of  the  conti- 
nental governments. 

Examined  physiologically,  the  practice  of  enlist- 
ing juvenile  recruits  seems  peculiarly  irrational. 
During  growth,  the  conditions  required  for  the 
healthy  development  of  the  body  are,  moderate  and 
regular  exercise,  plenty  of  nourishing  food,  abun- 
dance of  sleep,  and  a  cheerful  state  of  mind.  In 
making  the  transition  from  boyhood  to  maturity,  the 
equilibrium  of  action  between  the  different  parts  of 
the  system  is  so  much  disturbed,  that,  even  under 
the  most  favourable  circumstances,  an  unusual  sus- 
ceptibility of  disease  prevails,  which  renders  that 
period  of  life  particularly  dangerous.  By  consult- 


IN    SELECTING   RECRUITS.  28? 

ing  the  statistical  tables  prepared  by  Mr.  Finlayson, 
it  will  be  seen,  that  in  all  classes  of  society,  the  rate 
of  mortality  suddenly  increases  from  the  age  of  four- 
teen, when  rapid  growth  may  be  said  to  commencej 
to  that  of  twenty-three,  when  it  is  nearly  completed. 
In  Paris,  for  example,  the  tables  for  the  year  1820 
exhibit  only  395  deaths  as  occurring  between  the 
ages  of  10  and  15 ;  whereas  those  between  15  and 
20  amount  to  no  less  than  703,  being  nearly  double 
while  in  the  five  years  immediately  subsequent  they 
rise  to  1339,  and  afterward  begin  again  to  decrease. 
Viewing  these  results  in  connexion  with  the  laws 
of  the  animal  economy,  and  bearing  in  mind  that, 
even  in  peace,  military  service  implies  broken  sleep, 
separation  from  friends,  and  occasional  exposure  to 
fatigue  and  privation,  we  must  consider  it  almost 
self-evident,  that  an  army  composed  of  young  lads 
belonging  to  this  hazardous  period  of  life  must  be 
sickly  and  inefficient,  and  that  a  large  portion  of  the 
expense  and  trouble  bestowed  in  enlisting  and  train- 
ing them  must  be  entirely  thrown  away.  That  such 
is  actually  the  fact  has  unfortunately  been  proved 
too  often  by  fatal  experience.  Mr.  Marshall,  Dep- 
uty Inspector  of  Hospitals,  in  his  late  excellent 
work  "  On  the  Enlisting,  the  Discharging,  and  the 
Pensioning  of  Soldiers"  adduces  an  irresistible  mass 
of  evidence  to  show,  that  till  the  growth  is  com- 
pleted, it  is  impossible  to  form  any  correct  estimate 
of  the  probable  efficiency  of  a  recruit,  as  numbers 
of  apparently  promising  young  men  are  cut  off  by 
affections  of  the  chest,  and  other  acute  diseases,  be^ 
fore  attaining  maturity,  and  before  being  exposed  to 
any  unusual  privations  or  fatigue.  So  literally  ac- 
curate is  this  statement,  that  Coche,  a  high  French 
authority  quoted  by  Mr.  Marshall,  mentions  dis- 
tinctly, that  even  in  time  of  peace,  when  no  great 
hardships  are  to  be  encountered,  volunteers  received 
into  the  army  at  the  age  of  eighteen  or  twenty  pass 
two,  three,  or  four  years  of  their  period  of  servieS 


288       NEGLECT  OF  ORGANIC  LAWS 

(eight  years)  in  hospital,  solely  from  inability  to  bear 
tip  under  difficulties  which  scarcely  affect  those  who 
are  a  few  years  older. 

If  such  be  the  result  during  peace,  I  need  hardly 
say,  that  in  time  of  war  the  practice  of  enlisting 
Tery  young  men  is  not  less  fatal  to  the  individual 
than  costly  to  the  country.  It  appears,  accordingly, 
that  in  the  army  in  Spain,  sickness  and  inefficiency 
prevailed  almost  in  proportion  to  the  youth  and  re- 
cent arrival  of  the  soldiers.  Sir  James  Macgrigor 
cites  the  7th  regiment  as  an  illustration,  and  adds, 
that  between  9th  August,  1811,  and  20th  May,  1812,  it 
lost  246  men,  of  whom  169  were  recruits  landed  in 
the  preceding  June ;  while  only  77  were  old  soldiers. 
The  original  number  of  this  detachment  of  recruits 
was  353,  so  that  more  than  one-half  died  within  the 
first  eleven  months.  The  total  number  of  old  soldiers, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  1143,  and  of  them  only  77 
perished  in  the  same  time  !  So  convinced,  indeed, 
is  Sir  James  of  growing  "  lads  being  unequal  to  the 
harassing  duties  of  the  service,"  that  in  making  cal- 
culations for  measures  in  the  field,  he  thinks  that 
300  men  who  had  served  five  years  would  be  found 
more  effective  than  1000  newly  arrived,  not  simply 
from  their  greater  experience,  but  chiefly  from  the 
additional  stamina  proceeding  from  maturity.* 

In  a  note  subjoined  to  the  preceding  opinion  of 
Sir  James  Macgrigor,  Mr.  Marshall  says,  "  numer- 
ous examples  might  be  quoted  to  show  that  young 
lads  are  much  less  able  to  endure  the  fatigue  of 
marching  than  men  a  little  more  advanced  in  life. 
During  the  winter  of  1805,  a  French  army,  which 
was  stationed  on  the  coast  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Boulogne,  marched  about  400  leagues  to  join  the 
grand  arrny  before  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  which  it 
effected  without  leaving  almost  any  sick  in  the  hospitals 
on  the  route.  The  men  of  this  army  had  served  two 

*  Marshall,  lib.  eft.,  p.  h. 


IN  SELECTING  RECRUITS.         289 

years,  and  were  not  under  twenty-two  years  of  age. 
The  result  of  the  march  of  this  army  may  be  com- 
pared with  that  of  another  under  different  circum- 
stances. In  the  campaign  of  the  summer  of  1809, 
the  troops  cantoned  in  the  north  of  Germany 
marched  to  Vienna,  but  by  the  time  they  arrived  at 
the  place  of  their  destination,  all  the  hospitals  on  the 
road  were  filled  with  sick.  More  than  one-half  of  the 
men  composing  this  army  were  under  twenty  years 
o/age,  the  usual  levy  of  conscripts  having  been  an- 
ticipated. After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  Napoleon 
made  great  exertions  to  recruit  his  army,  and  called 
upon  the  legislative  senate  to  give  him  their  assist- 
ance, to  which  they  showed  some  reluctance. 
*  Shame  on  you !'  cried  the  emperor  *  *  *,  *  I  demand 
a  levy  of  300,000  men,  but  /  must  have  grown  men, 

BOYS  SERVE  ONLY  TO  ENCUMBER  THE  HOSPITALS  AND 
ROAD-SIDES.'  " 

In  similar  defiance  of  the  laws  of  physiology,  half- 
grown  lads  were  at  one  time  preferred  for  the  East 
India  service,  on  the  false  supposition  that  their  un- 
consolidated  constitutions  would  more  easily  adapt 
themselves  to  the  climate  than  those  of  men  already 
arrived  at  maturity, — a  proposition  very  nearly 
equivalent  to  saying,  that  because  a  person  is  al- 
ready enfeebled,  exposure  to  the  causes  of  disease 
will  therefore  have  less  effect  on  him  than  after  his 
strength  shall  be  restored !  Palpably  fallacious  as 
this  kind  of  logic  now  appears  to  be,  it  nevertheless 
reigned  for  years  with  undisputed  sway,  and  it  was 
only  in  September,  1829,  that  an  order  was  issued 
from  the  Horse  Guards  that  no  recruits  under  twenty 
should  be  received  for  regiments  serving  in  tropical 
climates ;  and  so  late  as  the  year  1826,  nearly  15 
per  cent,  of  the  king's  troops  in  Bengal  were  under 
that  age. 

In  touching  upon  this  question  also,  Mr.  Marshall 
supports  his  positions  by  a  reference  to  facts  of  a 
very  conclusive  kind,  and  to  authors  whose  opimons 
K  o 


290        NEGLECT  OF  ORGANIC  LAWS 

ought  to  have  great  weight.  Among  other  evidence, 
he  quotes  the  register  of  a  regiment  employed  in 
the  Burmese  territory  in  1824-5,  from  which  "it 
appears  that,  in  1824,  the  ratio  of  mortality  among 
the  young  men  who  went  out  with  the  corps  was 
38  per  cent.,  or  1  in  every  2£ ;  while,  among  the 
volunteers  who  were  considerably  older,  the  mor- 
tality was  17  per  cent.,  or  only  1  in  6.  In  1825,  it 
>vas  30.5  per  cent.,  or  1  in  3s,  among  the  younger 
lass,  and  only  6  percent.,  or  1  in  16,  among  the  older." 

-(P.  10.)* 

Some  other  instances  might  be  quoted  in  proof 
of  the  greatest  mortality  being  always  among  the 
youngest  men;  and  I  might  refer  to  a  regiment 
mentioned  by  Dr.  Davies,  in  which,  when  it  was 
sent  out  to  Bombay  in  1808,  there  was  not  a  single 
private  above  22  years  of  age,  and  in  which,  out  of 
550  men,  nearly  300  required  medical  assistance 
within  six  weeks  after  he  joined  it ;  but  it  is  un- 
necessary, as,  although  individual  officers  still  prefer 
young  men,  government  is  at  last  awakened  to  their 
unfitness.  A  vague  opinion  that  growing  lads  do 
not  bear  fatigue  is  indeed  prevalent  enough;  but  I 
venture  to  say,  that  if  those  by  whom  the  age  of 
enlistment  was  first  determined  had  been  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  laws  of  physiology,  and  had 
possessed  a  clear  perception  of  the  conditions  of 

*  In  availing  myself  of  Mr.  Marshall's  labours,  I  may  be  allowed 
to  express  my  opinion  of  the  benefit  he  is  conferring  by  his  sta- 
tistical researches,  not  only  on  the  service  with  which  he  has 
been  so  long  and  honourably  connected,  but  also  on  the  public 
at  large-  There  are  many  practical  questions  deeply  concern- 
ing public  health,  which  can  only  be  fully  elucidated  by  such 
masses  of  facts  being  grouped  together  as  shall  destroy  all  minor 
inequalities,  and  place  the  operation  of  principles  prominently 
in  view.  But  to  effect  this  object  with  due  regard  to  accuracy 
requires  an  acquaintance  with  details,  an  acuteness  of  observa- 
tion, and  a  power  of  successful  generalization,  which  are  rarely 
found  in  combination  with  adequate  zeal  and  industry.  It  would 
be  very  useful  if  similar  researches  were  instituted  in  regard  to 
the  occurrences  in  our  public  hospitals. 


IN   SELECTING    RECRUITS.  291 

healthy  growth,  the  practice  of  receiving  recruits 
at  17  or  18  years  of  age  would  never  have  been 
sanctioned,  and  the  country  would  have  been  saved 
the  pain  and  the  expense  of  sending  thousands  of 
young  men  to  "  encumber  the  hospitals  and  the 
road-sides"  of  the  Peninsula,  or  to  perish  under  the 
exhausting  influence  of  a  tropical  climate. 

I  have  dwelt  at  some  length  on  this  subject,  both 
because  the  practice  which  I  condemn  was  lately 
in  full  operation,  and  is  even  yet  not  entirely  ex- 
ploded, and  because,  from  the  magnitude  of  its  re- 
sults, and  the  clearness  with  which  they  can  be 
traced  to  a  direct  violation  of  a  natural  law  of  the 
constitution,  it  affords  an  instructive  example  of  the 
evils  arising  from  ignorance  of  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  human  body,  a»id  of  the  aid  which 
might  be  derived  from  a  general  acquaintance  with 
physiology  in  preserving  health,  and  promoting  the 
happiness  of  the  race. 

It  was  my  intention  to  analyze,  in  the  same  way, 
various  other  practices  in  which  public  or  private 
health  is  concerned,  and  to  offer  some  suggestions 
for  improving  the  treatment  of  the  insane,  by  a  more 
extensive  observation  of  the  conditions  required  for 
the  healthy  exercise  of  the  mental  functions  ;  but  I 
have  already  so  far  exceeded  the  limits  originally 
proposed,  that  I  must  now  draw  to  a  conclusion,  and 
judge,  by  the  reception  of  the  present  volume,  how 
far  I  am  right  in  believing  that  information  of  the 
kind  now  communicated  will  be  acceptable  or  use- 
ful to  the  public 


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